Uso de vasopresina y suturas transfixivas para el tratamiento quirúrgico de la gestación ectópica intersticial / Use of vasopressin and transfixive sutures for the surgical treatment of interstitial ectopic gestation

Resumen La gestación cornual, también conocida como intersticial, es una gestación ectópica infrecuente que ocurre en 1/2500 a 1/5000 de los embarazos cuando el embrión implanta en el trayecto intramiometrial de la porción proximal de la trompa. Puede debutar como shock hipovolémico en un 25% de los casos, conllevando una mortalidad de hasta un 2,5%. Mediante ecografía se encuentra un saco gestacional excéntrico y rodeado por una fina capa de miometrio. El tratamiento, en la mayoría de los casos, es quirúrgico, y el control de la hemostasia supone todo un reto. Se presentan dos casos clínicos de mujeres con diagnóstico de gestación intersticial en quienes se realizó exéresis por laparoscopia tras inyección de vasopresina, permitiendo así controlar el sangrado. En una de las pacientes se practicaron también puntos transfixivos transitorios en la arteria uterina y el ligamento útero-ovárico.

Abstract Cornual gestation, also known as interstitial, is a rare ectopic gestation that occurs in 1/2500 to 1/5000 of pregnancies when the embryo implants in the intramyometrial tract of the proximal tube. It can debut as hypovolemic shock in 25% of cases, leading to a mortality rate of up to 2.5%. Using ultrasound, we will find an eccentric gestational sac surrounded by a thin layer of myometrium. Treatment, in most cases, is surgical and control of hemostasis is a challenge. Two clinical cases are presented of women with a diagnosis of interstitial pregnancy in whom transient transfixive sutures were performed at the level of the uterine artery and uterine-ovarian ligament and injection of vasopressin prior to laparoscopic exeresis, thus allowing the bleeding to be controlled.

Microcirculation improvement after short-term infusion of vasopressin in septic shock is dependent on noradrenaline

OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of vasopressin on the microcirculation and to develop a predictive model to estimate the probability of microcirculatory recruitment in patients with septic shock. METHODS: This prospective interventional study included patients with septic shock receiving noradrenaline for less than 48 hours. We infused vasopressin at 0.04 U/min for one hour. Hemodynamic measurements, including sidestream dark-field imaging, were obtained immediately before vasopressin infusion, 1 hour after vasopressin infusion and 1 hour after vasopressin withdrawal. We defined patients with more than a 10% increase in total vascular density and perfused vascular density as responders. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02053675. RESULTS: Eighteen patients were included, and nine (50%) showed improved microcirculation after infusion of vasopressin. The noradrenaline dose was significantly reduced after vasopressin (p=0.001) and was higher both at baseline and during vasopressin infusion in the responders than in the non-responders. The strongest predictor for a favorable microcirculatory response was the dose of noradrenaline at baseline (OR=4.5; 95% CI: 1.2-17.0; p=0.027). For patients using a noradrenaline dose higher than 0.38 mcg/kg/min, the probability that microcirculatory perfusion would be improved with vasopressin was 53% (sensitivity 78%, specificity 77%). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with septic shock for no longer than 48 h, administration of vasopressin is likely to result in an improvement in microcirculation when the baseline noradrenaline dose is higher than 0.38 mcg/kg/min.

Vasopresores en resucitación cardiopulmonar: la controversia continúa / Vasopressors for cardiopulmonary resuscitation

The Advanced Cardiac Life Support proposes the use of vasopressor drugs cardiopulmonary resuscitation, with the primary purpose of effectively and early restoration of spontaneous circulation. However, the increased return of spontaneous circulation with vasopressors has not improved neurological outcome at hospital discharge. Adrenaline has traditionally been the main tool of the cardiopulmonary resuscitation guidelines despite the lack of conclusive scientific evidence. Therefore other alternatives were considered at experimental level that has have failed to overcome the clinical results of this drug. In contrast to progress on the standardized management of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the controversy regarding the effectiveness of vasopressor therapy remains open in the last years due to lack of clinical data to support their usefulness.

El soporte vital avanzado propone el uso de vasopresores durante la resucitación cardiopulmonar, con la finalidad primordial de reestablecer de manera precoz y efectiva la circulación espontánea. Sin embargo, el aumento del retorno a la circulación espontánea asociada a los vasopresores no ha demostrado una mejoría en el pronóstico neurológico al alta hospitalaria. La adrenalina, ha sido tradicionalmente la herramienta principal de las guías de resucitación cardiopulmonar pese a la falta de evidencia científica concluyente. Por ello se han planteado otras alternativas a nivel experimental que no han logrado superar los resultados de este fármaco a nivel clínico. En contraste con los avances respecto al manejo estandarizado de la resucitación cardiopulmonar, el debate con respecto a la efectividad de la terapia vasopresora se mantiene abierto en los últimos años dada la falta de datos clínicos que corroboren su real utilidad.

Tratamento da parada cardíaca experimental com adrenalina, vasopressina ou placebo / Experimental cardiac arrest treatment with adrenaline, vasopressin, or placebo

FUNDAMENTO: Na ressuscitação cardiopulmonar (RCP) prolongada, o efeito dos vasoconstritores não foi plenamente esclarecido. OBJETIVOS: Avaliar o efeito pressórico da adrenalina e da vasopressina, e observar o retorno da circulação espontânea (RCE). MÉTODOS: Estudo prospectivo, randomizado, cego e placebo-controlado. Após sete minutos em fibrilação ventricular, porcos receberam ciclos de dois minutos de RCP. Tentou-se a desfibrilação (4 J/kg) uma vez aos 9 minutos e após cada ciclo, conforme o ritmo verificado, reiniciando-se a RCP imediatamente. Aos 9 minutos e depois de cada cinco minutos, aplicou-se adrenalina 0,02 mg/kg (n = 12 porcos), ou vasopressina 0,4 U/kg (n = 12), ou solução salina 0,9% 0,2 mL/kg (n = 8). A RCP continuou por 30 minutos ou até o RCE. RESULTADOS: A pressão de perfusão coronária aumentou para aproximadamente 20 mmHg nos três grupos. Com os vasoconstritores, a pressão alcançou 35 mmHg versus 15 mmHg com placebo (p < 0,001). Com vasopressina, manteve-se efeito de 15-20 mmHg após três doses versus zero com adrenalina ou placebo. Observou-se o RCE com frequência diferente (p = 0,031) entre adrenalina (10/12), vasopressina (6/12) e placebo (2/8). O tempo médio até o RCE não diferiu (16 minutos), nem o número de doses recebidas até então (uma ou duas). Entre os vasoconstritores não houve diferença significante, mas, frente ao placebo, apenas a adrenalina aumentou significantemente o RCE (p = 0,019). CONCLUSÃO: O efeito pressórico inicial dos vasoconstritores foi equivalente, e a vasopressina manteve um efeito tardio na ressuscitação prolongada. Apesar disso, comparando-se ao placebo, apenas a adrenalina aumentou significantemente a frequência do retorno da circulação espontânea.

BACKGROUND: The effect of vasoconstrictors in prolonged cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has not been fully clarified. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate adrenaline and vasopressin pressure effect, and observe the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). METHODS: A prospective, randomized, blinded, and placebo-controlled study. After seven minutes of untreated ventricular fibrillation, pigs received two minutes cycles of CPR. Defibrillation was attempted (4 J/kg) once at 9 minutes, and after every cycle if a shockable rhythm was present, after what CPR was immediately resumed. At 9 minutes and every five minutes intervals, 0.02 mg/kg (n = 12 pigs) adrenaline, or 0.4 U/kg (n = 12) vasopressin, or 0.2 mL/kg (n = 8) 0.9% saline solution was administered. CPR continued for 30 minutes or until the ROSC. RESULTS: Coronary perfusion pressure increased to about 20 mmHg in the three groups. Following vasoconstrictors doses, pressure level reached 35 mmHg versus 15 mmHg with placebo (p < 0.001). Vasopressin effect remained at 15-20 mmHg after three doses versus zero with adrenaline or placebo. ROSC rate differed (p = 0.031) among adrenaline (10/12), vasopressin (6/12), and placebo (2/8). Time-to-ROSC did not differ (16 minutes), nor the number of doses previously received (one or two). There was no difference between vasoconstrictors, but against placebo, only adrenaline significantly increased the ROSC rate (p = 0.019). CONCLUSION: The vasoconstrictors initial pressure effect was equivalent and vasopressin maintained a late effect at prolonged resuscitation. Nevertheless, when compared with placebo, only adrenaline significantly increased the ROSC rate.

Efectividad y seguridad de somatostatina comparada con octreotida y terlipresina para el control de la hemorragia de vías digestivas altas en adultos con várices esofágicas / Effectiveness and safety of somatostatin compared to octreotide and terlipressin for the control of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding in adults with esophageal varices

Antecedentes: Descripción de la condición de salud de interés: La hipertensión portal, es comúnmente causada por la cirrosis hepática, resulta en varios flujos venosos colaterales por los cuales la sangre del sistema porta alcanza la circulación sistémica. De éstos flujos colaterales los que son clínicamente significativos son aquellos que circundan el cardias, donde la vena gástrica izquierda, la vena gástrica posterior y las venas gástricas cortas eventualmente se anastomosan con la vena ácigos menor y con la vena intercostal del sistema venoso sistémico. Esto lleva a la formación de alteraciones en la capa submucosa del tercio inferior del esófago y del fondo del estómago, y se denominan comúnmente várices. La importancia clínica radica en que la ruptura de estas várices resulta en una hemorragia gastroesofágica que es la complicación letal más frecuente de la cirrosis. Descripción de la tecnología: La somatostatina es una hormona del grupo de las hormonas hipofisiarias. La siguiente es la descripción del grupo H "Hormonas sistémicas excluyendo las hormonas sexuales y las insulinas" al cual pertenece. Evaluación de efectividad y seguridad: Pregunta de investigación: La pregunta de investigación fue validada teniendo en cuenta las siguientes fuentes de información: registro sanitario INVIMA, Acuerdo 029 de 2011, guías de práctica clínica, reportes de evaluación de tecnologías, revisiones sistemáticas y narrativas de la literatura, estudios de prevalencia/incidencia y carga de enfermedad, consulta con expertos temáticos, y otros actores clave. \r\nNo se identificaron otros comparadores relevantes para la evaluación. Población: Adultos con hemorragia de vías digestivas altas secundaria a várices esofágicas. Metodología: Búsqueda de literatura, Búsque\r\nda en bases de datos electrónicas. Conclusiones: -Efectividad: somatostatina, octreotide y terlipresina\r\nson efectivas para el tratamiento de pacientes adultos con hemorragia de vías digestivas altas secundaria a várices esofágicas. No hay diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ellas al evaluar mortalidad, control \r\ndel sangrado y resangrado; -Seguridad: En el estudio incluido no se encontraron datos acerca de la ocurrencia de eventos adversos entre somatostatina y sus comparadores.

Infusion of low-dose vasopressin improves left ventricular function during separation from cardiopulmonary bypass: A double-blind randomized study.

We aimed to investigate whether low-dose vasopressin administered to patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery with preexisting mild to moderate systolic dysfunction can produce sustained improvement in cardiac function. This double-blind randomized study was conducted in a hospital where a single anesthetic and surgical team performed elective CABG. Twenty patients aged 32-61 years who underwent elective CABG between January 2007 and December 2007 were enrolled in this study. The patients randomly received either vasopressin 0.03 IU/min (Group A) or normal saline (Group B) in equal volume for 60 min after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). The cardiac output, cardiac index, stroke volume index, fractional area of contraction and systemic vascular resistance index were significantly higher in Group A than in Group B. Adrenaline (mean dose: 0.06 μg/kg•min-1) was required in seven patients from Group B but in none of the Group A patients on initial separation from CPB (P< 0.05). Of the 10 patients in Group B, five required phenylepherine to maintain the mean arterial pressure (MAP) >65 mmHg, whereas none of the Group A patients required phenylephrine for MAP regulation (P< 0.05). We conclude that Infusion of low-dose vasopressin for patients with mild to moderate left ventricular systolic dysfunction during separation from CPB is beneficial for the postoperative hemodynamic profile, reduces the catecholamine doses required and improves left ventricular systolic function.

Intra-Arterial Treatment in Patients with Acute Massive Gastrointestinal Bleeding after Endoscopic Failure: Comparisons between Positive versus Negative Contrast Extravasation Groups

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether treatment outcome is associated with visualization of contrast extravasation in patients with acute massive gastrointestinal bleeding after endoscopic failure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From January 2007 to December 2009, patients that experienced a first attack of acute gastrointestinal bleeding after failure of initial endoscopy were referred to our interventional department for intra-arterial treatment. We enrolled 79 patients and divided them into two groups: positive and negative extravasation. For positive extravasation, patients were treated by coil embolization; and in negative extravasation, patients were treated with intra-arterial vasopressin infusion. The two groups were compared for clinical parameters, hemodynamics, laboratory findings, endoscopic characteristics, and mortality rates. RESULTS: Forty-eight patients had detectable contrast extravasation (positive extravasation), while 31 patients did not (negative extravasation). Fifty-six patients survived from this bleeding episode (overall clinical success rate, 71%). An elevation of hemoglobin level was observed in the both two groups; significantly greater in the positive extravasation group compared to the negative extravasation group. Although these patients were all at high risk of dying, the 90-day mortality rate was significantly lower in the positive extravasation than in the negative extravasation (20% versus 42%, p < 0.05). A multivariate analysis suggested that successful hemostasis (odds ratio [OR] = 28.66) is the most important predictor affecting the mortality in the two groups of patients. CONCLUSION: Visualization of contrast extravasation on angiography usually can target the bleeding artery directly, resulting in a higher success rate to control of hemorrhage.

Infusão intravenosa de vasopressina causa efeitos cardiovasculares adversos dose-dependentes em cães anestesiados / Infusión intravenosa de vasopresina causa efectos cardiovasculares adversos dependientes de la dosis en canes anestesiados / Vasopressin intravenous infusion causes dose dependent adverse cardiovascular effects in anesthetized dogs

FUNDAMENTO: A arginina-vasopressina (AVP) tem sido amplamente utilizada no tratamento do choque vasodilatador. Entretanto, há muitas questões relativas ao seu uso clínico, especialmente em altas doses, pois sua utilização pode estar associada a efeitos cardíacos adversos. OBJETIVO: Investigar os efeitos cardiovasculares da AVP em infusão IV contínua nos parâmetros hemodinâmicos em cães. MÉTODOS: Dezesseis cães saudáveis sem raça definida, anestesiados com pentobarbital, receberam um cateter intravascular e foram aleatoriamente designados para dois grupos: controle (solução salina - placebo; n=8) e AVP (n=8). O grupo do estudo recebeu infusão de AVP por três períodos consecutivos de 10 minutos a doses logaritmicamente progressivas (0,01; 0,1 e 1,0 U/kg/min), a intervalos de 20 minutos. A frequência cardíaca (HR) e as pressões intravasculares foram continuamente registradas. O debito cardíaco foi medido através do método de termodiluição. RESULTADOS: Nenhum efeito hemodinâmico significante foi observado durante a infusão de 0,01 U/kg/min de AVP, mas com as doses mais altas, de 0,1 e 1,0U/kg/min, houve um aumento progressivo na pressão arterial média (PAM) e índice de resistência vascular sistêmica (IRVS), com significante diminuição na frequência cardíaca (FC) e índice cardíaco (IC). Com a dose de 1,0 U/kg/min, também foi observado um aumento significante no índice de resistência vascular pulmonar (IRVP), principalmente devido à diminuição no IC. CONCLUSÃO: A AVP em doses entre 0,1 e 1,0 U/kg/min resultou em significantes aumentos na PAM e no IRVS, com efeitos inotrópicos e cronotrópicos negativos em animais saudáveis. Embora essas doses sejam de 10 a 1.000 vezes maiores do que as rotineiramente utilizadas no tratamento do choque vasodilatador, nossos dados confirmam que a AVP deveria ser usada cuidadosamente e sob rígida monitoração hemodinâmica na prática clínica, especialmente se doses maiores do que 0,01 U/kg/min forem necessárias.

BACKGROUND: Arginine vasopressin (AVP) has been broadly used in the management of vasodilatory shock. However, there are many concerns regarding its clinical use, especially in high doses, as it can be associated with adverse cardiovascular events. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the cardiovascular effects of AVP in continuous IV infusion on hemodynamic parameters in dogs. METHODS: Sixteen healthy mongrel dogs, anesthetized with pentobarbital were intravascularly catheterized, and randomly assigned to: control (saline-placebo; n=8) and AVP (n=8) groups. The study group was infused with AVP for three consecutive 10-minute periods at logarithmically increasing doses (0.01; 0.1 and 1.0U/kg/min), at them 20-min intervals. Heart rate (HR) and intravascular pressures were continuously recorded. Cardiac output was measured by the thermodilution method. RESULTS: No significant hemodynamic effects were observed during 0.01U/kg/min of AVP infusion, but at higher doses (0.1 and 1.0U/kg/min) a progressive increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) were observed, with a significant decrease in HR and the cardiac index (CI). A significant increase in the pulmonary vascular resistance index (PVRI) was also observed with the 1.0U/kg/min dose, mainly due to the decrease in the CI. CONCLUSION: AVP, when administered at doses between 0.1 and 1.0U/kg/min, induced significant increases in MAP and SVRI, with negative inotropic and chronotropic effects in healthy animals. Although these doses are ten to thousand times greater than those routinely used for the management of vasodilatory shock, our data confirm that AVP might be used carefully and under strict hemodynamic monitoring in clinical practice, especially if doses higher than 0.01 U/kg/min are needed.

FUNDAMENTO: La arginina-vasopresina (AVP) ha sido ampliamente utilizada en el tratamiento del choque vasodilatador. No obstante, hay muchos aspectos relativos a su uso clínico, especialmente en altas dosis, pues su utilización puede estar asociada a efectos cardíacos adversos. OBJETIVO: Investigar los efectos cardiovasculares de la AVP en infusión IV continua en los parámetros hemodinámicos en canes. MÉTODOS: Dieciséis canes saludables sin raza definida, anestesiados con pentobarbital, recibieron un catéter intravascular y fueron aleatoriamente designados para dos grupos: control (solución salina - placebo; n=8) y AVP (n=8). El grupo del estudio recibió infusión de AVP por tres períodos consecutivos de 10 minutos a dosis logarítimicamente progresivas (0,01; 0,1 y 1,0 U/kg/min), a intervalos de 20 minutos La frecuencia cardíaca (HR) y las presiones intravasculares fueron registradas continuamente. El débito cardíaco fue medido a través del método de termodilución. RESULTADOS: No se observó ningún efecto hemodinámico significativo durante la infusión de 0,01 U/kg/min de AVP, pero con las dosis más altas, de 0,1 y 1,0 U/kg/min, hubo un aumento progresivo en la presión arterial media (PAM) y en el índice de resistencia vascular sistémica (IRVS), con significativa disminución en la frecuencia cardíaca (FC) e índice cardíaco (IC). Con la dosis 1,0 U/kg/min, también se observó un aumento significativo en el índice de resistencia vascular pulmonar (IRVP), principalmente debido a la disminución en el IC. CONCLUSIÓN: La AVP en dosis entre 0,1 y 1,0 U/kg/min resultó en significativos aumentos en la PAM y en el IRVS, con efectos inotrópicos y cronotrópicos negativos en animales saludables. Aunque estas dosis sean de 10 a 1.000 veces mayores que las rutinariamente utilizadas en el tratamiento del choque vasodilatador, nuestros datos confirman que la AVP debería ser usada cuidadosamente y bajo rígido monitoreo hemodinámico en la práctica clínica, especialmente ...

Skin Necrosis after a Low-Dose Vasopressin Infusion through a Central Venous Catheter for Treating Septic Shock

This is a report on a case of severe skin necrosis in a vasodilatory septic shock patient after the infusion of low-dose vasopressin through a central venous catheter. An 84-year-old male was hospitalized for edema on both legs at Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea. On hospital day 8, the patient began to complain of dyspnea and he subsequently developed severe septic shock caused by E. coli. After being transferred to the medical intensive care unit, his hypotension, which was refractory to norepinephrine, was controlled by an infusion of low-dose vasopressin (0.02 unit/min) through a central venous catheter into the right subclavian vein. After the infusion of low-dose vasopressin, severe skin necrosis with bullous changes developed, necessitating discontinuation of the low-dose vasopressin infusion. The patient expired from refractory septic shock. Although low-dose vasopressin can control hypotension in septic shock patients, low-dose vasopressin must be used with caution because ischemic complications such as skin necrosis can develop even with administration through a central venous catheter.

A Prospective Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial Comparing the Effects of Somatostatin and Vasopressin for Control of Acute Variceal Bleeding in the Patients with Liver Cirrhosis

BACKGROUND: Acute variceal bleeding is a serious complication of liver cirrhosis, which has an attendant mortality of approximately 60% over two years, and a variety of treatments, such as balloon tamponade, endoscopic varix ligation, sclerotherapy, histoacryl injection and vasoactive drugs, have been used. The aims of the present trial were to compare the effectiveness and complications of somatostatin and vasopressin in the treatment of acute variceal bleeding. METHODS: Forty-three cirrhotic patients, with endoscopically proven acute variceal bleeding, were included in this trial. Both drugs were given as continuous intravenous infusions for 48 hours. Twenty patients received the somatostatin (250 mcg per hr after a bolus of 50 mcg) and twenty-three the vasopressin (0.4 units per min). RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the two groups in relation to age, sex, etiology of cirrhosis, Child-Pugh classification, characteristics of bleeding episode, laboratory findings before randomization and units of transfused blood during therapy. Rebleeding, within 6 hours after beginning of therapy, was regarded as failure to control initial bleeding, and was observed in 3 (13.0%) of the patients who received vasopressin and in 1 (5.0%) treated with somatostatin (p> 0.05). Five patients in both the somatostatin (25.0%) and vasopressin (21.7%) groups rebled during the first 5 days following the initial therapy (p> 0.05). Meaningful complications related to the use of vasopressin were observed in 5 patients (chest pain or abdominal pain requiring nitroglycerin), but no complications were associated with the use of somatostatin (p< 0.05). The mortalities during hospitalization were similar in both the treatment groups. Two of the vasopressin and 1 of the somatostatin group died due to the uncontrolled rebleeding, and 1 of the vasopressin group died due to hepatic failure (2 weeks later after theropy). CONCLUSION: This study showed no differences in the effectiveness of somatostatin and vasopressin, but the somatostatin group had a lower risk of the complications.

Management of portal hypertension.

Portal hypertension (PHT) is common in children and a majority of cases in India are constituted by extrahepatic portal venous obstruction or cirrhosis of liver. Morbidity and mortality in this condition is related to variceal bleeding, most commonly from esophageal varices. Acute variceal bleeding is best controlled by endoscopic therapy. Somatostatin and octreotide are useful in acute variceal bleeding as a supplementary therapy. Acute variceal bleeding uncontrolled by medical therapy merits preferably a shunt surgery or devascularization depending upon etiology of PHT and expertise of the surgeon. Acute variceal bleeding originating from gastric varices can be effectively controlled by endoscopic injection of tissue adhesive agent (n-butyl 2 cyanoacrylate). Eradication of esophageal varices by endoscopic measures (sclerotherapy or band ligation) is successful in prevention of recurrence of bleeding. Surgical portosystemic shunts especially in non-cirrhotic PHT are successful in achieving portal decompression and significant reduction in recurrence of variceal bleeding. Role of beta-blockers in primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in children still remains to be substantiated.

Hemorragia del tracto gastrointestinal inferior: enfoque imaginológico

Se revisa la historia clínica, hallazgos imaginológicos y evolución en tres pacientes con hemorragia del tracto gastrointestinal inferior de diferentes etiologías que fueron estudiados con glóbulos rojos radiomarcados y angiografía selectiva con terapia endovascular mediante infusión intrarterial de vasopresina en el Hospital San Juan de Dios en santafé de Bogotá, entre Agosto de 1996 y Marzo de 1997. se revisa la literatura reciente y el abordaje diagnóstico y terapéutico utilizado como flujograma de manejo

Tratamiento farmacológico de la hipertensión portal

Variceal bleeding is the most lethal complication of portal hypertension. Recent estimates have shown worldwide 50 million people with this entity, of which 60 percent have varices at the time of diagnosis and 20 percent bleeds each year. The mortality of each bleeding episode approaches 50 percent, the rate of recurrence in the first year after the initial hemorrhage is 60 percent and even higher in the first six weeks after bleeding. Treatment of portal hypertension must include the following aspects: 1)Treatment of active bleeding, 2)Prevention of recurrence and 3)Prevention of the first bleeding episode. Variceal bleeding never occurs with portal pressure below 12 mmHg, which means that although portal pressure is only one of the factors that determines the incidence of bleeding, reduction of portal pressure is the goal of the treatment. Pharmacologic treatment is based on vasoactive drugs that decrease portal pressure by a reduction of the blood flow that reaches the portal circulation (splanchnic vasoconstrictors), or through a reduction of the portal vein resistance (venodilators). Many drugs can reduce portal pressure, but few have received clinical evaluation. Vasopressin and somatostatin have been used successfully in the treatment of active variceal bleeding, the latter has shown absence of significant cardiovascular side effects commonly seen with the former. Addition of nitrates have increased the positive effects of vasopressin with a salutary reduction of side effects. Non selective batablockers such as propanolol and other compounds have been proved effective by several controlled studies and recent metaanalysis in the control of the recurrence of bleeding and the initial bleeding episode.

Continuous intra arterial vasopressin infusion for control of typhoid hemorrhage.

A 35 year old man presented with massive lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage due to typhoid enteritis. After confirming the site of bleeding on a selective superior mesenteric angiogram, a vasopressin infusion was given at the rate of 0.2-0.4 units/min initially, followed by tapering doses over 36 hours. Cessation of bleeding was achieved immediately. The patients did not have any complications due to the procedure. Continuous vasopressin infusion is an effective method for the treatment of uncontrolled bleeding from typhoid enteritis.