Molecular typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains isolated in two metropolitan areas of São Paulo State, southeast Brazil

One hundred and fifty-one methicillin-resistant z (MRSA) strains have been isolated from patients admitted in tertiary care hospitals in two metropolitan areas (Campinas City and Ribeirão Preto City) in the southeast region of Brazil and analyzed through PCR-based techniques [(PCR amplification of spa, coa, and housekeeping genes (arcC, aroE, gmk, pta, tpi, yqiL)] and further restriction fragment typing of coa and of housekeeping genes. The heterogeneity of spa gene was determined directly by agarose gel electrophoresis migration. The results obtained indicate the existence of three (A, B, C) main clusters. Since the strain distribution in these three clusters is much characteristic, it denotes the existence of three main clones. All strains isolated in Campinas were grouped in clusters A and B, while most of the strains isolated in Ribeirão Preto were grouped in cluster C. This distribution denotes the existence of different founder strains that undergo independent genetic variability. The strains considered representative of the Brazilian Epidemic Clone (BEC) were categorized as cluster A. These results indicate a possible higher variability among Brazilian MRSA strains than currently described and indicate that the techniques herein used can be used as an alternative to Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE).

Pathogenic and opportunistic respiratory bacteria-induced apoptosis

Several pathogenic or opportunistic bacteria have the ability to either induce or inhibit host cell apoptosis. The capacity to modulate cell pathways that result in the induction or delay of host cell apoptosis is considered to be an important bacterial virulence mechanism. These processes could be mediated by different host cell signaling pathways that are subverted by the bacteria. Pathogens are able to activate apoptotic proteins, such as caspases, or inactivate anti-apoptotic proteins, such as NFkB and the MAPKKs, or even up-regulate the endogenous receptor/ligand system that induces apoptosis, generally when the bacteria are bound to the host cell surface. The bacteria-induced apoptotic or anti-apoptotic processes are often related with the fact that the bacteria acquire the ability to reach the host tissues. However, apoptosis is also considered to be a host defense mechanism against infectious agents. Thus, the apoptosis phenomenon plays a central role in host-pathogen interactions.