Executive functions and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: comparisons between probands, parents and controls in India.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment is said to be a core feature of schizophrenia. Executive function is an important cognitive domain. AIM: This study was undertaken to assess cognitive impairment among Indian patients with schizophrenia (Sz) or schizoaffective disorder (SzA), compared with their parents and unaffected individuals (controls). SETTINGS AND DESIGN: Executive functions as measured by Trail-making Test (TMT), of patients and their parents were compared with controls. The patients were recruited from the Outpatients' Department (OPD) of a government hospital. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients diagnosed as Sz or SzA (n=172) and their parents (n=196: families n=132, 119 fathers and 77 mothers) participated. We also included 120 persons with no history of psychiatric illness. Cognitive function was assessed with the TMT. The Information Score of the Post Graduate Institute Battery of Brain Dysfunction test, developed in India for Indian subjects was used as a proxy for general fixed knowledge. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Logistic and linear regression was used to compare cognitive deficits of cases, parents and controls. RESULTS: Cases and their parents took significantly more time than controls on Part B of the TMT. There were no statistically significant differences between cases and parents on any of the TMT parameters. Using regression analysis, the most significant correlates of all TMT parameters among cases were with occurrence of auditory hallucinations and current age. CONCLUSION: Cases, as well as their parents showed more cognitive impairment than controls on the TMT.

Privacy and the Right to Information Act, 2005.

Privacy is a key component of individual autonomy, and a voluminous literature has established both its practical value in healthcare contexts and its status as a fundamental, but not absolute ethical right. Because the Right to Information Act (2005) permits citizens to gain information under government control, it might be thought to threaten the privacy of patients and research subjects, especially those in government institutions. It is important for clinicians, administrators, information officers, patients, and research subjects to understand that the RTI Act generally does not require or permit disclosure of personal health information to third parties. Only under unusual circumstances when the larger public interest is properly certified to warrant it, would information shared or created within the fiduciary relationships of clinical care or research be required to be disclosed. Against this background concerning the right to privacy and the RTI Act, we consider a 2007 legal case that used the RTI Act to expose patient information of a public official and argue that the "public interest" claimed in this case did not justify disclosure of the official's private health information. We conclude that the provisions of the RTI Act, when properly interpreted, are compatible with the important value of safeguarding patient privacy.

Clinical and familial correlates of tardive dyskinesia in India and Israel.

BACKGROUND: Antipsychotic drugs are widely used for the treatment of psychosis, especially schizophrenia. Their long-term use can result at times in serious side-effects such as Tardive Dyskinesia (TD). Since over 80% of schizophrenia sufferers (lifetime prevalence 1%) receive long-term antipsychotic drug treatment, the extent of the problem is potentially large. Increasing age is the most consistently demonstrated risk factor for TD. AIMS: To assess effect of different clinical factors and demographic variables in India and Israel and sib pair concordance of Tardive Dyskinesia (TD) in India. SETTINGS AND DESIGN: The study was conducted simultaneously among Indian and Israeli subjects: ascertainment was family-based in India and hospital-based in Israel. METHODS AND MATERIAL: In India the instruments used were: Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies (DIGS), Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), and Simpson Angus Scale (SAS). The last three instruments were also used in Israel. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Regression analysis and Pearson's correlation. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: TD symptoms were present in 40.4% of 151 Israeli subjects and 28.7% of 334 Indian subjects. While age at onset and total scores on PANSS were significant predictors of TD in both the samples, lower scores on the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF), diagnostic sub-group and male gender were significant predictors among Indians. There was no concordance of TD symptoms among 33 affected sib-pairs from India.

Molecular genetics of schizophrenia: past, present and future.

Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder with a polygenic mode of inheritance which is also governed by non-genetic factors. Candidate genes identified on the basis of biochemical and pharmacological evidence are being tested for linkage and association studies. Neurotransmitters, especially dopamine and serotonin have been widely implicated in its etiology. Genome scan of all human chromosomes with closely spaced polymorphic markers is being used for linkage studies. The completion and availability of the first draft of Human Genome Sequence has provided a treasure-trove that can be utilized to gain insight into the so far inaccessible regions of the human genome. Significant technological advances for identification of single nucleo-tide polymorphisms (SNPs) and use of microarrays have further strengthened research methodologies for genetic analysis of complex traits. In this review, we summarize the evolution of schizophrenia genetics from the past to the present, current trends and future direction of research.