Factores cognitivos, mórbidos y premórbidos en la formación y sustento de la creencia en lo paranormal / Cognitive, morbid and premorbid factors in the development and maintenance of paranormal beliefs

Resumen La literatura muestra una amplia gama de teorías y factores que contribuyen a la formación y mantenimiento de creencias paranormales. En este estudio se analiza una serie de variables relacionadas con las principales explicaciones propuestas en una muestra de 184 sujetos. La esquizotipia (rxy = .23, p < .001), las experiencias inusuales (rxy = .37, p < .001), la anhedonia introvertida (rxy = .28, p < .001), la habilidad de razonamiento condicional en tareas con contenido paranormal (rxy = .23, p = .001), la necesidad de afiliación (rxy = .21, p = .002) y la vivencia de experiencias extraordinarias subjetivas (rxy = .35, p < .001) correlacionaron significativamente con la creencia en lo paranormal. Los resultados son consistentes con la teoría de la compensación de necesidades de Russell y Jones (1980) e indican que la ideología puede aparecer asociada a signos premórbidos y/o ser consecuencia de psicopatología. Sin embargo, sugieren que la creencia en lo paranormal puede no ser consecuencia de una deficiencia de razonamiento probabilístico y/o condicional. Se sugiere un modelo integrador basado en el feedback entre creencia y experiencia.

Abstract Paranormal beliefs, regardless of their veracity, clearly constitute an important dimension of human psychology. Survey work across the world reveals that around 50 % of people hold at least one paranormal belief. This figure is surprisingly high considering the lack of robust scientific evidence in support of the referred phenomena, and suggests the existence of resilient psychological mechanisms at the basis of the development and maintenance of such beliefs. Researchers in the area have proposed a diversity of explanations, exploring a large number of individual factors. However, despite the generous effort, we have not been able to develop a comprehensive explanatory model capable of accommodating the body of empirical findings. With this study we aimed to contribute towards a better understanding of paranormal belief as a multicausal phenomenon. In order to achieve this, we explored a set of variables related to the main perspectives in the literature. We used a sample of 184 subjects of very diverse nationalities, ages, and cultural backgrounds. We surveyed paranormal beliefs among our participants and observed that 71 % of the sample showed traditional religious beliefs, 34 % believed in psychic phenomena such as extrasensory perception or psychokinesis, 31 % in superstition, 23 % in witchcraft, and 39 % in anomalous natural phenomena such as astrology or extraordinary life forms. Eighty four per cent of the subjects responded positively to at least one of the 26 items of paranormal beliefs evaluated in the scale. A correlation analysis was conducted between the individuals' traits and paranormal belief scores. Schizotypy (rxy = .23, p < .001), unusual experiences (rxy = .37, p < .001), introvertive anhedonia (rxy= .28, p < .001), conditional reasoning in tasks with paranormal content (rxy = .23, p = .001), need for affiliation (rxy = .21, p < .002), and report of subjective extraordinary experiences (rxy = .35, p < .001) correlated significantly with belief in the paranormal. These results are consistent with Russell and Jones' (1980) theory of compensation of basic needs and suggest that paranormal belief may rise in combination with premorbid signs of psychopathology. However, they suggest that belief in the paranormal may not be a consequence of a cognitive deficit in this type of reasoning. A multiple regression analysis revealed a five variable solution. In the equation, subjective extraordinary experiences, unusual experiences (from the schizotypy scale), need for autonomy, need for achievement, and introvertive anhedonia contributed standardized coefficients of .3, .23, .24, .22 and .13 respectively. The model explained 27 % of the variance. The findings of this study are consistent with a multicausal conception of paranormal belief. A model is proposed in which paranormal beliefs can stem from a variety of factors and, as they develop, a reciprocal interaction between experience and belief arises, contributing to their definitive accommodation in the individual's psychology. The identification and exploration of contributing factors to the development and maintenance of the paranormal belief has been very fruitful in the last decades. In addition, the explanatory hypotheses raised by the researchers do not seem to be mutually exclusive. Therefore, the simultaneous consideration of these could be a successful approach in future studies. The elaboration of an explanatory model that contemplates both the multicausality and the multidimensionality of the phenomenon could provide a qualitative leap in the area.

A dimensional measure of schizotypy: cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences short version for Brazilian Portuguese (O-LIFE-S)

Abstract Introduction The Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE) is a widely-used scale, and the first to include a dimensional approach to understanding schizotypy. Objective To adapt the short version of the O-LIFE (O-LIFE-S) into Brazilian Portuguese. Method a) Two independent bilingual professionals translated the original instrument into Brazilian Portuguese; b) a third bilingual professional summarized the two translations; c) a fourth bilingual expert translated the Portuguese version back into English; d) this back-translation was adjusted by a committee of psychology experts; e) a pilot study was conducted with 10 participants from the general population. Results O-LIFE-S was considered ready to be used in a formal validation study in Brazil. Conclusion The scale appears to cover the dimensional approach to schizotypy. However, a future validation study needs to be conducted to determine the internal consistency and reliability of the Brazilian Portuguese version of the O-LIFE-S .

Sesgo atribucional en pacientes psiquiátricos, religiosos y un grupo control en el juicio de la experiencia alucinatoria: la tarea del White Christmas test / Attributional Biases in Psychiatric Patients, a Religious, and a Control Group in the Assessment of a Hallucinatory Experience: The "White Christmas Test"

RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la experiencia alucinatoria auditiva en una muestra clínica de pacientes con historial psiquiátrico (p. ej., esquizofrénicos), practicantes religiosos (p. ej., cristianos evangélicos devotos) y un grupo control (sin trastorno mental y no religiosos devotos). La muestra estuvo integrada por individuos de ambos sexos. La muestra de pacientes se reclutó en 2 hospitales psiquiátricos de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, un grupo de practicantes religiosos (cristianos devotos) en un culto evangélico y un grupo de control no religioso y carente de síntomas psiquiátricos previos. Se aplicó el Cuestionario de Experiencias Alucinatorias y el Oxford-Liverpool Inventory Feelings and Experiences, y luego se administró el White Christmas Test, que evalúa el grado de la imaginería auditiva vívida con base en una versión del paradigma de detección de serial, en que el sujeto cree escuchar un tema musical en el trasfondo de un ruido blanco. Los pacientes mostraron mayor sesgo atribucional que los evangélicos y el grupo control, pero además los religiosos también tendieron a mostrar mayor sesgo (aunque en menor grado) que el grupo control. Además, los pacientes tendieron a mostrar más esquizotipia y experiencias alucinatorias que los evangélicos y el grupo control, pero sorprendentemente el grupo control mostró mayor esquizotipia negativa que el grupo religioso, lo cual indica que las prácticas religiosas podrían contribuir a disminuir los efectos negativos de la esquizotipia.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the auditory hallucinatory experience in a clinical sample of patients with psychiatric symptoms (e.g. Schizophrenia), a religious group (eg. Christians) and a "control" group (with no mental disorder and non-religious). The sample consisted of individuals of both sexes. The patient sample was recruited in two psychiatric hospitals of Buenos Aires City, the religious from an evangelical cult, and people with no religious beliefs or previous psychiatric symptoms (control group). The Hallucinatory Experiences Questionnaire and the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory Feelings and Experiences were the measurement tools used. The White Christmas Test was also administered in order to assess the degree of vivid imagery hearing based on a version of signal detection paradigm in which the subjects think that they hear a song in the background of white noise. The results showed that patients showed greater attributional bias (compared with evangelicals and the control group), but the religious group also tended to show greater bias (although less) than the control group. In addition, patients tended to show greater schizotypal and hallucinatory experiences compared with the evangelicals and the control group, but surprisingly, the control group showed higher negative schizotypy than the religious group, which indicates that religious practices could help reduce the negative effects of schizotypy.

Factores de personalidad, perceptuales y cognitivas asociadas con las experiencias anómalo/paranormales en personal de enfermería / Personality, perceptual and cognitive factors associated with anomalous/paranormal experiences in nursing staff / Fatores de personalidade, perceptuais e cognitivas associadas com experiências anômalo/paranormais em pessoal de enfermagem

INTRODUCCIÓN: Un número de experiencias paranormales aparecen relatadas por enfermeros que consisten en visiones del lecho de muerte y otros fenómenos anómalos. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el grado de ocurrencia de ciertas experiencias perceptuales inusuales en entornos hospitalarios, las denominadas Experiencias Anómalo/Paranormales con frecuencia reportadas por médicos y enfermeras en el ámbito hospitalario. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal y analítico. Se administraron cinco escalas, Encuesta de Experiencias Anómalo/Paranormales para Enfermeras, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Tellegen Absorption Scale, Inventario Oxford-Liverpool de Sentimientos y Experiencias, y Test de Empatía Cognitivo Afectiva a 344 enfermeros de 36 hospitales y centros de salud de Buenos Aires, Argentina. RESULTADOS: Las experiencias más comunes de las enfermeras son: sensación de presencia y/o apariciones, oír ruidos, voces o diálogos, llantos o quejas, experiencias intuitivas y extrasensoriales en relación con sus pacientes, o bien la recepción de esas experiencias por parte de sus propios pacientes, tales como experiencias cercanas a la muerte, prácticas de oración o intervenciones religiosas con sanaciones espontáneas, y otras experiencias anómalas relacionadas con niños. DISCUSIÓN: Las enfermeras con experiencias también tendieron a mayor absorción, lo cual se confirmó; una tendencia a la esquizotipia y mayor empatía cognitiva y comprensión emocional que en enfermeras sin experiencias. CONCLUSIONES: Aunque no se confirmó la hipótesis según la cual, enfermeras con experiencias tienden a experimentar mayor estrés laboral, sin embargo se encontró que las enfermeras con experiencias obtuvieron una puntuación más alta en el factor Despersonalización que las enfermeras sin experiencias.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Nurses narrated a number of paranormal experiences consisting in deathbed visions and other anomalous phenomena. The aim of this study was to determine the degree of occurrence of certain unusual perceptual experiences in hospital environments, the so-called anomalous/paranormal experiences frequently reported by physicians and nurses in the hospital environment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a cross-sectional and analytic study. Five scales were administered, Survey of Anomalous/Paranormal Experiences for Nurses, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Tellegen Absorption Scale, Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences, and Affective Cognitive Empathy Test on 344 nurses from 36 hospitals and health center in Buenos Aires, Argentina. RESULTS: The most common experiences reported by nurses are sensation of presence and/or apparitions, hearing noises, voices or dialogs, crying or wailing, intuitive and extrasensory experiences in relation to their patients, or the reception of said experiences by their own patients, such as near-death experiences, prayer practices or religious interventions with spontaneous healing, and other anomalous experiences related to children. DISCUSSION: Nurses with experiences also tended to higher absorption, which was confirmed by a tendency to schizotypy and greater cognitive empathy and emotional understanding than nurses without experiences. CONCLUSIONS:Although the hypothesis was not confirmed, according to which nurses with experiences tend to undergo greater labor stress, it was found that nurses with experiences obtained a higher score in the depersonalization factor than nurses without experiences.

INTRODUÇÃO: Uma série de experiências paranormais relatadas por enfermeiros que consistem em visões no leito de morte e outros fenômenos anômalos. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar o grau de ocorrência de certas experiências perceptuais incomuns em ambientes hospitalares, chamados de Experiências Anômalo/Paranormais frequentemente relatados por médicos e enfermeiros no ambiente hospitalário. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal e analítico. Foram aplicadas cinco escalas, Pesquisa de Experiências Anômalo/Paranormais para enfermeiros, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Tellegen Absorption Scale, Inventário Oxford-Liverpool de Sentimientos e Experiências, e Teste de Empatia Cognitiva Afectiva a 344 enfermeiros de 36 hospitais e centros de saúde em Buenos Aires, Argentina. RESULTADOS: As experiências mais comuns de enfermeiros são: sensação de presença e/ou aparições, ouvir ruídos, vozes ou diálogos, lágrimas ou reclamações, experiências intuitivas e extra-sensoriais em relação com seus pacientes, ou bem a recepção dessas experiências por seus próprios pacientes, tais como experiências de quase-morte, práticas de oração ou intervenções religiosas com curas espontâneas, e outras experiências anômalas relacionadas com crianças. DISCUSSÃO: Os enfermeiros com experiência também tendiam a maior absorção, o que foi confirmado; uma tendência a esquizotipia e maior empatia cognitiva e compreensão emocional do que enfermeiros sem experiência. CONCLUSÕES: Embora não seja confirmada a hipótese segundo a qual enfermeiros com experiências tendem a experimentar um maior estresse no trabalho, no entanto encontrou-se que os enfermeiros com experiência obtiveram escores mais altos no fator Despersonalização que os enfermeiros sem experiências.

Importancia diferencial de los componentes fundamentales de la esquizotipia: un metaanálisis / Differential importance of the basic components of schizotypy: A meta-analysis

Resumen La esquizotipia puede entenderse como un trastorno incluido en el espectro de la esquizofrenia o como rasgo psicométrico que comprende 3 dimensiones: cognitivo-perceptual, interpersonal y desorganización cognitiva. La primera se relaciona con creencias extrañas y experiencias perceptuales inusuales; la segunda, con anhedonia y déficit en relaciones interpersonales, y la desorganización se identifica con pensamientos, conductas y lenguaje raros. Diferentes estudios han intentado esclarecer cuál de estas dimensiones es el componente esencial del constructo. Para dar respuesta a esta cuestión se llevó a cabo un metaanálisis en el que se realizó una revisión sistemática de las principales bases de datos que comparan las dimensiones de esquizotipia asociadas con diferentes áreas temáticas: composición factorial, síntomas clínicos y marcadores de vulnerabilidad. A partir de 300 artículos encontrados, se seleccionaron 27 estudios. Los resultados indicaron que la dimensión interpersonal parece estar más relacionada con la sintomatología clínica, mientras que la dimensión cognitivo-perceptual predomina en la investigación sobre marcadores de vulnerabilidad. La desorganización cognitiva contribuye a ambas temáticas. Se concluye que las dimensiones de esquizotipia tienen una importancia diferencial en función de las áreas de funcionamiento psicológico en estudio.

Abstract Schizotypy can be understood as a disorder included in the schizophrenia spectrum or as a psychometric trait that includes three factors: cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized. The first relates to strange beliefs and unusual perceptual experiences; the second, with anhedonia and deficits in interpersonal relationships, and the third, disorganisation, is identified with strange thoughts, behaviors, and language. Several studies have attempted to clarify which of these dimensions is more relevant when predicting the construct. To answer this question, a meta-analysis was conducted using a systematic review of the major databases comparing schizotypy dimensions associated with different categories: structure, health, and vulnerability markers. A total of 27 studies were selected from 300 items found. The results indicate that the interpersonal dimension seems to be related to clinical symptoms, while the cognitive-perceptual dimension dominates research on vulnerability markers. Cognitive disorganization contributes to both topics. It is concluded that the dimensions of schizotypy have a differential importance in terms of the areas of psychological functioning under study.

Diferencias individuales en la frecuencia del recuerdo de sueños exóticos / Individual differences in exotic dreams recall

El objetivo de este estudio es, por una parte, determinar las características de personalidad entre individuos que recuerdan sueños y, por otra, comparar las puntuaciones obtenidas en la alteración dormital, el neuroticismo y la extroversión, y los indicadores de propensión a la esquizotipia en individuos que no recuerdan sueños. Para este fin, se examinó la frecuencia del recuerdo del sueño con contenido extraño, inusual, y anómalo-paranormal.Vale la pena resaltar que pocos estudios han explorado las diferencias individuales en relación con tales sueños. En este estudio se reagrupó una muestra de 231 individuos de ambos sexos que puntuaron su calidad en el recuerdo del sueño entre alta (n = 57) y baja (n = 174). Se emplearon tres instrumentos que miden la etapa dormital y dos que miden el neuroticismo, la extroversión y la esquizotipia. Los sueños exóticos más frecuentes son los auditivos, los lúcidos, los recurrentes, los psíquicos y los asociados al recuerdo de personas fallecidas. Las puntuaciones altas en la alteración del sueño, las experiencias esquizotípicas y las experiencias hipnagógicas e hipnopómpicas caracterizan a los soñadores en comparación con los no soñadores. Este estudio sostiene la idea de que ciertos indicadores de propensión a la esquizotipia están asociados a la frecuencia del recuerdo de sueños exóticos.

This study aimed to assess personality traits amongst individuals who remember dreams, on the one hand, and to compare scores obtained in sleep disorder, neuroticism and extroversion, as well as indicators of proneness to schizotypy in individuals who cannot remember dreams, on the other. To this end, dream recall frequency was assessed as including strange, unusual and anomalous/paranormal content. Notably, few studies have explored individual differences in such dreams. A sample of 231 men and women with high (n=57) and low (n=174) scores on dream recall quality was clustered in this study. Three instruments that measure sleep stage and two which measure neuroticism, extroversion and schizotypy were used. The most common exotic dreams were auditory dreams, lucid dreams, recurring dreams, psychic dreams, and dreams associated with deceased persons. In comparison with non-dreamers, dreamers had higher scores for sleep disorder, schizotypal experiences, and hypnagogic/hypnopompic experiences. This study supports the idea that some indicators of proneness to schizotypy are associated with the frequency of exotic dream recall.

Asociaciones entre la calidad dormital, esquizotipia y experiencias perceptuales inusuales / Associations between slep quality, schizotypy and unusual perceptual experiences (PPE)

Existen diferencias en términos de la necesidad de dormir en la población general. Algunos estudios sugieren que quienes duermen poco son propensos a generar alucinaciones, de modo que parece haber una posible relación entre la duración del sueño, las alucinaciones y otras experiencias anómalas diurnas. El presente estudio se centra en la comprensión de la etiología de ciertas experiencias perceptuales inusuales (EPIs), mediante la exploración de las relaciones entre la duración del sueño, la esquizotipia, y la calidad del sueño. Se clasificó a una muestra de la población general en la duración del sueño en tres grupos: período corto (n = 202, 46%), mediano (n = 103, 23%) y largo (n = 131, 30%) mediante un ítem del Índice de Calidad de Sueño. También completaron el Inventario de Sentimientos y Experiencias Oxford-Liverpool (O-LIFE) y el Cuestionario de Experiencias Perceptuales Inusuales. Los resultados sugieren que individuos con un período corto de sueño experimentan menor recuerdo y nitidez de las imágenes oníricas, aunque un aumento de experiencias perceptuales inusuales diurnas. La calidad del sueño está directamente relacionada con ciertas experiencias inusuales y la esquizotipia, las cuales parecen estar parcialmente moduladas por la duración del sueño.

There are differences in terms of the need to sleep in the general population. Some studies suggest that short sleepers are likely to produce hallucinations, and that seems to have a possible relationship between sleep duration, hallucinations and other anomalous experiences during daytime. This study focuses on understanding the aetiology of certain unusual perceptual experiences (PPE), by exploring the relationship between sleep duration, schizotypy, and sleep quality. We classified a sample of the general population in sleep duration into three groups: short period (n = 202, 46%), medium (n = 103, 23%) and long (n = 131, 30%) by means of a Pittsburgh Scale item. They also completed the Inventory of Feelings and Experiences Oxford-Liverpool (O-LIFE) and the Unusual Perceptual Experiences Questionnaire. The results suggest that individuals with a short sleep period experience less memory and sharpness of images of dreams, albeit they have an increase in daytime unusual perceptual experiences. Sleep quality is directly related to some unusual experiences and schizotypy, which appears to be partially modulated by sleep duration.

Experiencias perceptuales inusuales, experiencias anómalo/paranormales y propensión a la esquizotipia / Unusual perceptual experiences, anomalous/paranormal experiences and proneness to schizotypy

Parece haber similitudes entre el trastorno esquizotípico de personalidad (TEP) y las experiencias paranormales. De hecho, algunos de los síntomas en el TEP en el Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) coinciden con un número de experiencias anómalo/paranormales. La esquizotipia positiva, que incluye pensamiento mágico, alucinaciones y otras experiencias perceptuales inusuales, también ha estado relacionada con experiencias y creencias paranormales. Sin embargo, las experiencias paranormales difieren de las experiencias psicóticas en la población no clínica. Para examinar diferencias en síntomas positivos y negativos de esquizotipia se comparó un grupo de individuos interesados en temas paranormales (N = 121) con uno de estudiantes universitarios (N = 588). Como estaba previsto en las hipótesis, las personas interesadas en temas paranormales puntuaron más alto en el subtotal de síntomas positivos de esquizotipia en comparación con los estudiantes, sin diferencias en síntomas negativos. Los síntomas positivos se presentan también en estudiantes que indican tener experiencias paranormales en comparación con aquellos sin experiencias, con una diferencia marginalmente significativa en los síntomas negativos entre ambos grupos.

There seems to be similarities between schizotypal personality and paranormal experiences, in fact, some of the symptoms of PTSD in The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) match a number of anomalous/paranormal experiences. Positive schizotypy, including magical thinking, hallucinations and other unusual perceptual experiences, has also been associated with paranormal experiences and beliefs. However, paranormal experiences differ from psychotic experiences in nonclinical populations. In order to establish differences between positive and negative symptoms of schizotypy, we compared a group of believers in the paranormal (N = 121) and a sample of undergraduate students (N = 588). The hypothesis that believers would have higher scores in schizotypy positive symptoms was confirmed. There was a significant difference in positive symptoms of schizotypy among the group of students with and no experiences, although not significant for negative symptoms.

Esquizofrenia e criatividade artística / Schizophrenia and artistic creativity

Este artigo constitui um estudo teórico sobre a esquizofrenia e a criatividade artística. O estudo foi baseado no levantamento da produção científica nas bases de dados Web of Science, PsycINFO e Medline, dos últimos dez anos, utilizando as palavras-chave Schizophrenia e Creativity. A maioria dos estudos aponta que o mais provável é que a vulnerabilidade para a esquizofrenia manifeste diferentes vantagens criativas por causa de suas possíveis características perceptuais, cognitivas e de personalidade. Contudo a ideia de que distúrbios do espectro da esquizofrenia possam desencadear a criatividade artística não é defensável. (AU)

This article constitutes itself as a theoretical study about schizophrenia and artistic creativity. The study was based on a survey of the scientific production in the databases Web of Science, PsycINFO and Medline for the last ten years, using the key words Schizophrenia and Creativity. The majority of the studies points out that the most probable fact is that the vulnerability for schizophrenia manifests several creative advantages because of its possible perceptual, cognitive and personality characteristics. However, the idea of a spectrum of schizophrenia to trigger artistic creativity is not defensible. (AU)

Esquizotipia, habilidades "Teoria da Mente" e vulnerabilidade à psicose: uma revisão sistemática

CONTEXTO: A capacidade de inferir estados mentais de terceiros (também chamada habilidade "Teoria da Mente" ou "ToM") desenvolveu-se em decorrência de uma pressão evolutiva exercida por sociedades progressivamente mais complexas e parece estar comprometida na esquizofrenia e em portadores de transtorno esquizotípico de personalidade. Tal comprometimento poderia explicar o aparecimento de sintomas psicóticos nestes indivíduos. OBJETIVO: Revisar criticamente a literatura sobre alterações ToM em indivíduos esquizotípicos ou portadores de sintomas psicóticos subsindrômicos. MÉTODOS: Realizou-se uma busca na base MedLine por trabalhos publicados em inglês e português, entre 1990 e 2008, utilizando a frase "Schizotypal Personality Disorder [MeSH] AND "Theory of Mind" OR "Mentalising". RESULTADOS: Foram selecionados 15 artigos, os quais utilizaram diversos desenhos experimentais e instrumentos para avaliação de traços esquizotípicos, propensão à psicose e habilidades ToM. CONCLUSÕES: Os trabalhos revisados visaram estabelecer relações entre vulnerabilidade à psicose e alterações ToM. Alguns artigos também abordaram o caráter traço ou estado dependente das alterações ToM. A maioria dos trabalhos selecionados sugeriu que indivíduos com escores altos para esquizotipia e familiares de esquizofrênicos apresentam problemas no processamento ToM (este teria, portanto, um caráter traço-dependente). Tais dados devem ser interpretados cuidadosamente em virtude de problemas metodológicos observados na maioria dos estudos.

BACKGROUND: The ability of inferring mental states of others (also named "Theory of Mind" or "ToM" abilitiy) has been developed due an evolution pressure exerted by progressively more complex societies and it might be impaired in schizophrenia and in schizotypal individuals. Such impairment might explain the occurrence of psychotic symptoms in these individuals. OBJECTIVE: To review critically the literature on possible alterations of ToM processing in individuals with schizotypy or subsyndromal psychotic symptoms. METHODS: We performed a search on MedLine database for articles published in English or Portuguese between 1990 and 2008, using the phrase "Schizotypal Personality Disorder [MeSH] AND "Theory of Mind" OR "Mentalising". RESULTS: Fifteen manuscripts have been selected, which used diverse experimental designs and instruments to evaluate schizotypal traits, vulnerability to psychosis and ToM abilities. DISCUSSION: The reviewed articles aimed to establish relationships between vulnerability to psychosis and alterations in ToM processing. Some articles also approached the trait or state dependence character of ToM impairments. The great majority of the selected manuscripts suggested that individuals who scored high in schizotypy scales, as well as schizophrenic relatives, do show problems in ToM processing (which suggests a trait dependence character). However, these results should be interpreted carefully due to methodological problems seen in the majority of the studies.

The Emotional Characteristics of Schizotypy

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between emotional traits and schizotypal symptoms and to establish a hypothetical model for the causal relationship between them. METHODS: Schizotypal symptoms were assessed using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ), and a total of seven emotional traits considered to be potential risk factors for schizotypy were categorized as emotional disturbances, emotional attenuators or emotional amplifiers. A total of 502 undergraduate students completed the SPQ and other scales. RESULTS: The result of the present study suggested that the high levels of emotional disturbance in individuals who are prone to schizotypy or psychosis are amplified by their intensity and fluctuation. However, if their emotion attenuating abilities function well, these disturbances can be controlled and the schizotypal symptoms and progression to psychosis can be contained. Discriminant analysis showed that 69.0% of the subjects with many schizotypal symptoms and 80.7% of the subjects with few schizotypal symptoms were correctly classified. CONCLUSION: The present study suggests the possibility of using emotional traits to identify the risk factors for psychosis.