Production and Physicochemical Analysis of Glycerol Produced from the Transesterification Reaction of Locally Processed Fatty Acids

The study uses the transesterification reaction method to extract glycerol from three locally processed fatty acids namely; palm oil, palm kernel and shea butter. The glycerols extracted from the three fatty acids were subjected to physicochemical tests to determine if their properties are in conformity with the reported standard values. Results of the physical properties of the substances tested show that the values were in close agreement with the results of the standard values and the results reported impervious literatures. As such, the investigation concluded that the three fatty acids contain appreciable quantities of crude glycerol and can thus serve as a source for natural glycerol whose properties can be compared with standard glycerin products.

Emericella nidulans (4DP5), Cladosporium herbarum (7DF12) and Bacillus subtilis improve the nutritional value of palm kernel cake (PKC) through solid-state fermentation (SSF)

Aims@#Palm kernel cake (PKC) is a high-protein, high-energy food that is widely utilized in the animal feed business. However, the high fibre and limited amino acid content of untreated PKC were the main issues for it to be used as animal feed, particularly in non-ruminants. To improve the quality of PKC, this study combined the use of solid-state fermentation (SSF) and consortia of fungi and bacteria to treat the PKC.@*Methodology and results@#Two fungi, Emericella nidulans (4DP5) and Cladosporium herbarum (7DF12) and three strains of bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, which were active mannanase producers, were used in different combinations to reduce the hemicellulose content and improve the crude protein content of PKC in a lab-scale solid-state fermentation. PKC inoculated separately with five types of mixed culture treatments were allowed to ferment. The fermentation conditions were 20% inoculum (w/v), 85-92% humidity, pH 7.0 and PKC particle size 0.8 mm. PKC treatments with two fungi, E. nidulans (4DP5) and C. herbarum (7DF12), as well as a fungus-bacterium combination, E. nidulans (4DP5) and B. subtilis, outperformed the other three treatments. The crude protein levels were increased by 3.34% and 1.86%, respectively, due to these treatments. Furthermore, the level of aflatoxins produced increased marginally but remained within the permissible limits.@*Conclusion, significance and impact of study@#The treated PKC has more sugar and crude protein and less than 20 parts per billion (ppb) of aflatoxin, making it appropriate for animal consumption. The SSF technique of combining fungi and Bacilli enhanced the nutritional and market value of PKC substantially, which can be upscaled.

Enzymatic preparation of manno-oligosaccharides from locust bean gum and palm kernel cake, and investigations into its prebiotic activity

BACKGROUND: Manno-oligosaccharides (MOS) is known as a kind of prebiotics. Mannanase plays a key role for the degradation of mannan to produce MOS. In this study, the mannanases of glycoside hydrolase (GH) families 5 Man5HJ14 and GH26 ManAJB13 were employed to prepare MOS from locust bean gum (LBG) and palm kernel cake (PKC). The prebiotic activity and utilization of MOS were assessed in vitro using the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum strain. RESULTS: Galactomannan from LBG was converted to MOS ranging in size from mannose up to mannoheptose by Man5HJ14 and ManAJB13. Mannoheptose was got from the hydrolysates produced by Man5HJ14, which mannohexaose was obtained from LBG hydrolyzed by ManAJB13. However, the same components of MOS ranging in size from mannose up to mannotetrose were observed between PKC hydrolyzed by the mannanases mentioned above. MOS stability was not affected by high-temperature and high-pressure condition at their natural pH. Based on in vitro growth study, all MOS from LBG and PKC was effective in promoting the growth of L. plantarum CICC 24202, with the strain preferring to use mannose to mannotriose, rather than above mannotetrose. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of mannanases and mannan difference on MOS composition was studied. All of MOS hydrolysates showed the stability in adversity condition and prebiotic activity of L. plantarum, which would have potential application in the biotechnological applications.

Purification and physicochemical characterisation of Aspergillus niger USM F4 β-mannanase

Aims@#This present study focused on purification of fungal β-mannanase produced by Aspergillus niger USM F4 and also physicochemical characterisation of the purified enzyme.@*Methodology and results@#The purified β-mannanase with a molecular mass of ~47.4 kDa was demonstrated on SDSPAGE gel. The enzyme signified a purification degree of 4-fold, with final specific activity of 196.42 U/mg. It reached an optimum catalytic activity at pH 4.0 and 60 °C. The thermal stability of the enzyme was up to 70 °C and maintained the 50% activity after 30 min at 80 °C. Meanwhile, the pH stability was in the range of pH 3.0-9.0 and a 30 min half-life at pH 10.0. All chemical substances manifested an inhibitory effect on purified β-mannanase, with SDS (28.16 ± 0.05% residual activity) as the strongest inhibitor, followed by cupric ion (Cu2+) (49.51 ± 0.09% residual activity). As a whole, the enzyme displayed a substrate specificity in the order of locust bean gum (LBG) > carboxymethylcellulose > soluble starch > xylan from oat spelt > α-cellulose. Its preference for LBG has generated the Km and Vmax values of 0.20 mg/mL and 9.82 U/mL, respectively.@*Conclusion, significance and impact of study@#The outcomes of our study offer potential for use at industrial scales, particularly in the oligosaccharides production that involve acid-related activity, wide-ranging temperature and pH stability.

Physico-chemical Characterization of Palm Kernel Oil Extracted from the Seeds of Two Varieties of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) for Possible Use in Feed or Food

This study was carried out in order to assess the quality of the type of palm kernel oil suitable for the alternative in animal oil in feed or food. To reach this objective, oil D and oil T extracted respectively from the seeds of the varieties Dura and Tenera of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) by the Soxhlet method using hexane as a solvent were analyzed for their physicochemical characteristics. The results obtained show that the values for the physical parameters (Oil yield, density and percentage of impurities) of both oils were similar and fell in those of the standards of Codex Alimentarius 2015. However, for the chemical parameters (Acid value, percentage of free fatty acids, peroxide value, saponification value and ester value), the values obtained for oil D were the highest, but for both oils, the values were above those recommended by the standards of Codex Alimentarius 2015, excepted the Saponification values and the Ester values which were below these standards. The determination of fatty acids composition by Gas Chromatography showed that these oils were not significantly different. Indeed, the totals saturated fatty acids were in amounts of 87.92% ± 0.17 and 87.53% ± 0.24, while the totals unsaturated fatty acids were in amounts of 12.08% ± 0.02 and 12.47% ± 0.02 respectively for oil D and oil T. The predominant fatty acid was lauric acid in amounts of 36.87% and 37.84% respectively for oil D and oil T. Thus, these palm kernel oils could be used as ingredients and preservatives in feed due to their content in lauric acid which is known to possess antimicrobial properties and also to their content in unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linoleic acids) which are an indicator of oil quality. However, oil T seems to be more suitable for the alternative in animal oil in feed due to its percentage of free fatty acid which is less than that of oil D.

A new isolate of thermophilic and organic solvent tolerant bacteria for lipase production using basal medium of palm kernel cake 80-87

@#Aims: This research focused on the selection of potential strains especially bacteria that can grow effectively in palm kernel cake (PKC) and produce high amount of thermostable and solvent tolerant (TS-OST) lipase. The work involved the exploration of renewable PKC as potential fermentation medium for discovery to novel TS-OST lipase that would have excellent tolerance and activity in presence of organic solvents with high temperatures for industrial applications.Methodology and results: Using palm kernel cake (PKC) as source of thermophilic bacteria, 53 bacterial strains were found survived at temperature 65 °C. However, after subcultured several times, only 17 strains were found as pure thermophilic strains. Preliminary screening both qualitative and quantitative was performed to all 17 potential thermophilic bacterial strains and showed that only 11 purified thermophilic strains are lipase producer. Strain PKC-P1 produced highest enzyme activity (11.13 U/g), followed by PKC-P13 and PKC-C9. The lowest enzymeactivity was lipase produced byPKC-C10 (0.76U/g). Strain PKC-P1 has been classified as Gram negative bacteria and identified as Bacillus smithiistrain PKC_P1.Conclusion, significance and impact of study: PKC as a by-product of oil palm industry consistsof many nutrients that can give benefits towards industry and can be utilized in order to produce enzymes like lipases. From these results, it could be concluded that this lipase stable at temperature 65 °C and pH 7 and may be a potential candidate to be used in a variety of biotechnological applications. This finding revealed that a bacterial strain obtained from oil-rich environment which is PKC through isolation process has potential as a source of more economical enzyme to be applied in biotechnology industr

Biochar como enmienda en un oxisol y su efecto en el crecimiento de maíz

Hay una creciente preocupación, a nivel mundial, por la declinación de la calidad de los suelos. Numerosos reportes sugieren la adición de biochar, para incrementar la fertilidad del suelo y la productividad de los cultivos. Se evaluó el efecto de la aplicación de diferentes niveles de biochar, en un oxisol representativo de la Altillanura Colombiana y su efecto en el crecimiento del maíz. Las muestras de suelo fueron recolectadas y tratadas con biochar de cuesco de palma africana procesado, en un reactor termoquímico cilíndrico de lecho fijo; se manejó régimen de flujo concurrente y diferentes temperaturas, para priorizar la obtención de biochar. Se utilizaron dosis de biochar (masa/masa) de 0, 2, 5 y 10% y se compararon con tratamiento con cal. Después de incubación por 45 días bajo condiciones ambientales exteriores, cuatro semillas de maíz (Zea maíz L.) variedad Guacavía fueron sembradas en cada recipiente, sin adición de fertilizante o enmienda. Las unidades experimentales fueron contenedores plásticos de 5kg. El material vegetal, aunque se recolectó a los 90 días después de la siembra, presentaba una fase vegetativa V5. Se analizó absorción de nutrientes por el maíz en planta entera. Independiente, se analizaron muestras del biochar, encontrándose que predominaron las cargas negativas. En la mezcla suelo-biochar, se observó incremento de P, Ca, Mg y K, pero el Na no tuvo incremento; se redujo el Al+3 proporcional a la aplicación de biochar. La absorción de Zn y Mg aumentó notablemente en el maíz, pero también la absorción de Fe se incrementó, a niveles tóxicos.

There is growing concern worldwide for the decline of soil quality. Numerous reports suggest the addition of biochar to increase soil fertility and crop productivity. The effect of applying different levels of biochar in a representative oxisol of Colombian Altillanura and its effect on corn growth was evaluated. Soil samples were collected and treated with African palm shell biochar, thermochemically obtained in a cylindrical fixed bed reactor, in a concurrent flow regime. Different temperatures were handled to prioritize obtaining biochar. Doses of biochar (m/m) of 0, 2, 5 and 10% were used and compared with treatment with lime. After 45 days incubation, under external environmental conditions, seeds of maize (Zea mays L.), Guacavía variety were planted in each container, without addition of fertilizer or amendment. The experimental units were plastic containers of 5kg. Although the plant material was collected 90 days after planting, it presented a vegetative phase V5. Nutrient uptake by corn was analyzed in whole plant. Independent biochar samples were analyzed and found predominance negative charges. In the mix biochar-soil increased P, Ca, Mg and K was observed, but did not increase Na. Al+ 3 proportional to the application of biochar was reduced. The Zn and Mg absorption increased significantly in maize, but also Fe uptake increased to toxic levels.

Bioconversion of mixed free fatty acids to poly-3-hydroxyalkanoates by Pseudomonas putida BET001 and modeling of its fermentation in shake flasks

Background: The paper reports on the utilization of palm kernel oil (PKO) as a low cost renewable substrate for medium-chain-length poly-3-hydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA) production by Pseudomonas putida BET001. Investigation on the effects of selected key variables on growth, mixed free fatty acids consumption and mcl-PHA production by the bacterial culture in the shaken flask system were carried out along with its kinetic modeling. Results: The biomass production, fatty acids consumption and mcl-PHA production were found favorable when the strain was cultured in mineral medium at pH 6-7,28°C, aeration surface-to-volume ratio of 0.4 x 10(6) m-1, 250 rpm agitation rate for 48 h. Mcl-PHA production by this strain showed mixed growth and non-growth associated components as described by Luedeking-Piret kinetic model. Conclusion: The findings of this study provided add to the literature on key variables in for achieving good microbial growth and mcl-PHA production in shake flasks culture. In addition, suitable kinetic model to describe cultivation in this system was also presented.

Toxicological Evaluation of Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) Biodiesel-Contaminated Catfish on Kidney of Albino Rats.

Aim: To assess the toxicological and histopathological effects of feed formulated with catfish (Clarias gariepinus) exposed to palm kernel oil (PKO) biodiesel on kidney in albino rat. Study Design: Randomized experimental controlled study Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in Environmental Science laboratory of Federal University of Petroleum Resources Effurun between February and June, 2014. Methodology: A total of 30 albino rats weighing 49 to 53 g and within the age range of 4-6 weeks were used for this study. Experimental rats were grouped into three, namely; Control, BD0.1 and BD0.25 placed on feed formulated with catfish exposed to borehole water mixed with different concentrations of PKO biodiesel (0 %v/v, 0.1 %v/v, 0.25 %v/v) for 30 days. Haematological properties, indices of oxidative stress, some enzymes of the kidney and selected serum indices of kidney functions (urea, creatinine, Na+ and K+) were measured. Tissue activity of ALP, ACP, LDH, CAT, GST and SOD were also estimated using conventional methods. Analyses were carried out using the SPSS software package (version11.5) and the results are expressed as mean ± SEM. Results: The study showed that animals fed with fish exposed to PKO biodiesel significantly had reduced relative kidney weight while serum levels of Na+, K+, urea, creatinine and kidney concentration of malodialdehyde (MDA) were elevated significantly (p<0.05) when compared with the controls. Activities of selected enzymes of kidney studied were significantly lower in BD0.1 and BD0.25 rats relative to the control. Particularly, the kidney activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) of control, and rats fed with feed formulated with BD0.1 and BD0.25 are 188.24 ± 6.68, 156.88 ± 9.84, 149.02 ± 6.77 U/mg protein, respectively. Histological examination revealed proliferation of inflammatory cells in the kidney of experimental rat. Conclusion: Data from this study suggested that consumption of catfish exposed to PKO biodiesel can compromise renal integrity, reduce renal performance, subject the kidney to oxidative stress and inflict varying degree of inflammation on cellular architecture of the kidney.

Characterization and identification of mannanolytic actinomycete Nonomuraea sp. ID06-379

Aims: The study focused on screening, identification and characterization of mannanolytic actinomycetes isolated from soil and leaf litter samples obtained from several sites in Indonesia. Methodology and results: A total of 337 isolates of actinomycetes isolated from soil and leaf litter samples collected from various areas in Indonesia were screened for their mannanolytic activity. Mannanase activity was analysed using locus bean gum (LBG) as the substrate. The strain ID06-0379 displayed significant mannanase activity. The strain ID06- 0379 was analysed for its mannanase activity by determining the rate of enzyme production when cultured in the presence of palm kernel cake (PKC) as a substrate. The highest mannanase activity from ID06-0379 was 4.40 U/mL at 5% PKC concentration at 5 days incubation. Chemotaxonomic and phenotypic characterisation of mannanolytic actinomycete was done and the strain ID06-0379 contained meso-diaminopimelic acid, and madurose was the diagnostic sugar in whole cell sugar. The polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylinositol, and hydroxy-phosphatidylethanolamine. The predominant menaquinone of strain ID06-0379 was MK-9(H4). The major cellular fatty acids were C16:0 (31.47%), cis9-C16:1 (15.23%) and iso-C16:0 (10.84%), and the G+C content of the DNA was 71.7 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rDNA sequences revealed that strain ID06- 379 was closely related to species of Nonomuraea jabiensis A4036T with 99% nucleotide similarity. Conclusion, significance and impact study: The results from this study revealed that the mannanolytic actinomycete strain ID06-379 belongs to the genus Nonomuraea that closely related to N. jabiensis A4036T . Mannanase production using agricultural waste such as palm kernel cake may contribute to the development and utilisation of biomass bioconversion processes. Keywords: Indonesian actinomycetes, mannanase enzyme, locus bean gum, palm kernel cake, Nonomuraea sp. ID06- 0379.

Cellulase activity in solid state fermentation of palm kernel cake with Trichoderma sp

Aims: The effect of different types of fungal inocula to the cellulase activity measured on palm kernel cake (PKC) was studied. Methodology and Results: Isolate Pro-A1 which was identified as Trichoderma sp. was selected as a potential producer of cellulase via solid state fermentation technique (SSF). Two types of PKCs were used; raw PKC (containing residual oil) and defatted PKC. The PKCs were inoculated with different concentrations of conidia and varying amounts (g) of solid mycelia plugs (SMP) for SSF. The effect of ultrafiltered crude fungal filtrate (CFF) as inocula was also being tested. The highest cellulase activity of 2.454 FPU/mL was detected with 60% (wt/wt) SMP applied to the raw PKC. Conversely, 2.059 FPU/mL of cellulase activity was measured when 80% (wt/wt) of SMP was applied to the defatted PKC which is 62.3% higher than the untreated defatted PKC; and more than 100% increase in enzymatic activity compared to raw PKC. The cellulase activity in the SSF inoculated with 8 x 106 conidia /mL and 12 x 106 conidia /mL were 1.704 FPU/mL for raw PKC and 1.856 FPU/mL for defatted PKC, an enhancement of about 46% from uninoculated batch. Inoculation with CFF bears corresponding maximum improvement of the cellulase activity on both PKCs of 13.58% (raw) and 2.86% (defatted). Conclusion, significance and impact of study: The current study proves that Trichoderma sp. in the form of SMP can enhance the cellulase activity on PKCs effectively with more than 100% increment. Fungal conidia are also a better choice in enhancing cellulase activity of Trichoderma sp. permitted that the PKC used is devoid of oil. From this study, Trichoderma sp. holds the potential of converting lignocellulosic materials into products of commercial and industrial values such as glucose and other biofuels.

Rendimiento productivo y características de la canal de corderos alimentados con dietas con diferentes niveles de torta de palma / Productive performance and carcass characteristics of lambs fed diets containing different levels of palm kernel cake

Objective. The objective of this study was to determine the effect on productive performance and carcass characteristics in lambs fed with different amounts of palm kernel cake. Material and methods. Thirty-two Santa Inês lambs, with an initial live body weight of 24.8 ± 3.59 kg were used. Treatments consisted of four levels (0; 6.5; 13.0 and 19.5%) of palm kernel cake added to the dry matter diet. Lambs were fed for 80 days, and then slaughtered to be evaluated for the quantitative characteristics of the carcass. Results. Intake of dry matter and non-structural carbohydrates decreased with increasing levels of palm kernel cake. The intake of neutral detergent fiber showed a linear increase. Crude protein and total digestive nutrient intake were not affected. Weight gain, and the feed:gain ratio of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein and total digestive nutrients were similar among the four treatments. There was an increase on the feed:gain ratio of neutral detergent fiber and a decrease of nonstructural carbohydrates. The weight gain at slaughter and biometric measures were not affected by treatment. The carcass compactness index showed a linear decrease. The indexes of leg muscularity, compactness of the leg and rib eye area were similar among treatments. There was a linear decrease in the cold carcass weight and commercial yield of the carcass. Conclusions. The diet made of up to 19.5% palm kernel cake reduced DM intake, the carcass compactness index and carcass commercial yield, but did not alter weight gain, or feed dry matter intake.

Palm Kernel oil blends as suppository bases in the delivery of aspirin

Rectal delivery of drugs has been proven to be effective in terms of drug absorption and distribution comparable with other routes such as oral, buccal, sublingual or even nasal. In this study, two new suppository bases were developed using combinations of locally sourced hydrogenated palm kernel oil, hydrogenated palm kernel stearin and hydrogenated palm kernel olein with mixtures of stearic acid and glyceryl monostearate. When formulated with aspirin, these bases produced suppositories with acceptable characteristics. These aspirin suppositories were tested on twelve healthy subjects after an approval from the Medical Ethics Committee, University of Malaya had been procured. We quantified aspirin from the urine samples of the subjects to determine the relative availability of the different suppository preparations relative to an oral dose. The excretion of salicylic acid, one of the metabolite of aspirin in human urine taking aspirin was quantified. The F value was found to range from 1.16 to 1.38. Hence, the excretion results showed that these palm kernel oil blends are suitable suppository bases.