Efeitos adversos às drogas antituberculose: hepatotoxicidade / Adverse effects to antituberculosis drugs: hepatotoxicity

Objetivo: Verificar a frequência de efeitos adversos em pacientes em uso de drogas antituberculose de primeira linha, além dos fatores de risco associados aos efeitos adversos e à hepatotoxicidade. Métodos: Estudo transversal, envolvendo 196 pacientes portadores de tuberculose em Maceió (AL), de agosto de 2017 a junho de 2018. Os efeitos adversos foram classificados de acordo com o Manual de Recomendações para Controle da Tuberculose de 2011, do Ministério da Saúde, em efeitos menores (queixas gastrintestinais, cutâneos, articulares e neurológicos) e maiores (psicose e hepatotoxicidade). Os fatores de risco avaliados foram: idade superior a 40 anos, etilismo, sexo feminino, anemia, doença hepática anterior, diabetes e infecção por HIV. Resultados: Foram observados efeitos adversos às drogas antituberculose em 85 pacientes (43,4%); destes, 40,8% eram menores e 8,2%, maiores. Os mais frequentes foram distúrbios gastrintestinais (25,5%) e cutâneos (15,3%). Identificaram-se como fatores de risco anemia, diabetes e doença hepática anterior. Hepatotoxicidade foi diagnosticada em 15 pacientes (10,6%), dos quais 80% eram sintomáticos, sendo fatores de risco doença hepática anterior e diabetes. Houve suspensão da terapia em todos os casos de hepatotoxicidade com modificação do esquema em 80% dos casos. Conclusão: Demonstrou-se frequência elevada de efeitos adversos às drogas antituberculose, associada à doença hepática anterior e ao diabetes. A hepatotoxicidade representou o efeito adverso mais grave, responsável pela suspensão e pela adequação do esquema terapêutico.

Objective: To determine the adverse effects frequency in patients on first-line antituberculosis drugs, as well as the risk factors associated with adverse effects and hepatotoxicity. Methods: Cross-sectional study, involving 196 tuberculosis patients in Maceió (AL), from August 2017 to June 2018. Adverse effects were classified according to the Manual de Recomendações para Controle da Tuberculose, of the Brazilian Health Ministry, in minor effects (gastrointestinal, cutaneous, articular, neurologic complaints) and major effects (psychosis and hepatotoxicity). The risk factors evaluated were age over 40 years, alcoholism, female sex, anemia, previous hepatic disease, diabetes, and infection by HIV. Results: Adverse effects to the antituberculosis drugs were observed in 85 patients (43.4%) and, among those, 40.8% were minor and 8.2% were major effects. The most frequent were gastrointestinal (25.5%) and skin (15.3%) disorders. Risk factors were identified as anemia, diabetes, and previous hepatic disease. Hepatotoxicity was diagnosed in 15 patients (10.6%), from which 80% were symptomatic, with previous hepatic disease and diabetes being the risk factors. Therapy was discontinued in all cases of hepatotoxicity with regimen modification in 80% of cases. Conclusion: An elevated frequency of adverse effects to antituberculosis drugs was demonstrated. Hepatotoxicity represented the most severe adverse effect, being responsible for the discontinuation and adaptation of the therapeutic regimen.

Association of adverse drug reaction to anti-tuberculosis medication with quality of life in patients in a tertiary referral hospital

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Adverse drug reactions can develop when using anti-tuberculosis medication, and the effects of the drugs can also significantly hinder the treatment of patients. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 73 patients using two standardized questionnaires and the World Health Organization Quality of Life-Bref. RESULTS: All patients reported the presence of adverse drug reactions, 71.6% of which are minor and 28.3% both major and minor. The global quality of life analysis showed that patients with tuberculosis have a good average (67.3%). CONCLUSIONS: There is an association between quality of life and adverse drug reaction, educational level, and vulnerability.

Relationship of anti-tuberculosis drug-induced liver injury and genetic polymorphisms in CYP2E1 and GST

ABSTRACT Setting: Treatment of tuberculosis (TB) can result in Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) since hepatotoxic metabolites are formed during the biotransformation of isoniazid (INH).DILI can be related to the genetic profile of the patient. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CYP2E1 gene and GSTM1 and GSTT1 deletion polymorphisms have been associated with adverse events caused by INH. Objective: To characterize the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2E1, GSTT1 and GSTM1 in TB carriers. Design: This is an observational prospective cohort study of 45 patients undergoing treatment of TB. PCR-RFLP and multiplex-PCR were used. Results: The distribution of genotypic frequency in the promoter region (CYP2E1 gene) was: 98% wild genotype and 2% heterozygous. Intronic region: 78% wild genotype; 20% heterozygous and 2% homozygous variant. GST enzyme genes: 24% Null GSTM1 and 22% Null GSTT1. Patients with any variant allele of the CYP2E1 gene were grouped in the statistical analyses. Conclusion: Patients with the CYP2E1 variant genotype or Null GSTT1 showed higher risk of presenting DILI (p = 0.09; OR: 4.57; 95% CI: 0.75-27.6). Individuals with both genotypes had no increased risk compared to individuals with one genotype.

Drug therapy problems for patients with tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS at a reference hospital / Problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos em pacientes com tuberculose e HIV/AIDS em hospital referência

ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the frequency of drug therapy problem in the treatment of patients with tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. Methods: Data were obtained through a cross-sectional study conducted between September 2015 and December 2016 at a reference hospital in infectious diseases in Belo Horizonte (MG), Brazil. Sociodemographic, clinical, behavioral and pharmacotherapeutic variables were evaluated through a semi-structured questionnaire. Drug-related problems of pharmaceutical care were classified using the Pharmacotherapy Workup method. Factors associated with indication, effectiveness, safety and compliance drug therapy problem were assessed through multiple logistic regression. Results: We evaluated 81 patients, and 80% presented at least one drug therapy problem, with indication and adherence drug therapy problem being the most frequent. The factors associated with drug therapy problem were age, marital status, new case, ethnicity, time of HIV diagnosis and time to treat tuberculosis. Conclusion: The frequency of drug therapy problem in coinfected patients was high and the identification of the main drug therapy problem and associated factors may lead the multiprofessional health team to ensure the use of the most indicated, effective, safe and convenient medicines for the patients clinical condition. Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS coinfected individuals aged over 40 years are more likely to have drug therapy problems during treatment; in that, the most frequente are those that signal toward need of medication for an untreated health condition and non-compliance to treatment. Thus, older patients, unmarried or married, who have treated tuberculosis before, with a shorter time to tuberculosis treatment and longer time to diagnose HIV/AIDS, should receive special attention and be better followed by a multiprofessional health team because they indicate a higher chance of presenting Problems related to the use of non-adherent drugs.

RESUMO Objetivo: Determinar a frequência de problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos no tratamento de pacientes com tuberculose e HIV/AIDS. Métodos: Os dados foram obtidos por estudo transversal realizado entre setembro de 2015 e dezembro de 2016 em hospital referência em doenças infectocontagiosas de Belo Horizonte (MG), Brasil. As variáveis sociodemográficas, clínicas, comportamentais e farmacoterapêuticas foram avaliadas por questionário semiestruturado. Classificaram-se os problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamento empregando o método Pharmacotherapy Workup de atenção farmacêutica. Os fatores associados aos problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos de indicação, efetividade, segurança e adesão foram avaliados pela regressão logística múltipla. Resultados: Foram avaliados 81 pacientes, e 80% apresentaram pelo menos um problema relacionado ao uso de medicamentos, sendo os mais frequentes ligados à problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos de indicação e adesão. Os fatores associados aos problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos foram idade, estado civil, caso novo, etnia, tempo de diagnóstico do HIV e tempo de tratamento da tuberculose. Conclusão: A frequência de problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos em pacientes coinfectados foi alta, e a identificação dos principais problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos e dos fatores associados aos mesmos pode direcionar a equipe multiprofissional de saúde, para garantir o uso dos medicamentos mais indicados, efetivos, seguros e convenientes para a condição clínica dos pacientes. Os indivíduos coinfectados com tuberculose e HIV/AIDS maiores de 40 anos possuem maior chance de apresentarem problemas relacionados ao uso de medicamentos durante o tratamento, sendo os mais frequentes os que indicam a necessidade de medicamento para condição de saúde não tratada e não adesão ao tratamento. Pacientes mais idosos, solteiros ou não, que já trataram a tuberculose antes, com menor tempo de tratamento de tuberculose e maior tempo de diagnóstico de HIV/AIDS devem ter atenção especial no acompanhamento por uma equipe multiprofissional de saúde por indicarem maior chance de apresentar Problemas Relacionados ao uso de Medicamentos de não adesão à terapia.

Sequential analysis as a tool for detection of amikacin ototoxicity in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis / Análise sequencial como ferramenta na detecção da ototoxicidade da amicacina no tratamento da tuberculose multirresistente

ABSTRACT Objective: To investigate early detection of amikacin-induced ototoxicity in a population treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), by means of three different tests: pure-tone audiometry (PTA); high-frequency audiometry (HFA); and distortion-product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) testing. Methods: This was a longitudinal prospective cohort study involving patients aged 18-69 years with a diagnosis of MDR-TB who had to receive amikacin for six months as part of their antituberculosis drug regimen for the first time. Hearing was assessed before treatment initiation and at two and six months after treatment initiation. Sequential statistics were used to analyze the results. Results: We included 61 patients, but the final population consisted of 10 patients (7 men and 3 women) because of sequential analysis. Comparison of the test results obtained at two and six months after treatment initiation with those obtained at baseline revealed that HFA at two months and PTA at six months detected hearing threshold shifts consistent with ototoxicity. However, DPOAE testing did not detect such shifts. Conclusions: The statistical method used in this study makes it possible to conclude that, over the six-month period, amikacin-associated hearing threshold shifts were detected by HFA and PTA, and that DPOAE testing was not efficient in detecting such shifts.

RESUMO Objetivo: Verificar a detecção precoce de ototoxicidade causada pelo uso de amicacina numa população tratada para tuberculose multirresistente (TBMR) por meio da realização de três testes distintos: audiometria tonal liminar (ATL), audiometria de altas frequências (AAF) e pesquisa de emissões otoacústicas por produto de distorção (EOAPD). Métodos: Estudo longitudinal de coorte prospectiva incluindo pacientes de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 18 e 69 anos, com diagnóstico de TBMR pulmonar e que necessitaram utilizar amicacina por seis meses em seu esquema medicamentoso antituberculose pela primeira vez. A avaliação auditiva foi realizada antes do início do tratamento e depois de dois e seis meses do início do tratamento. A análise dos resultados foi realizada por meio de análise estatística sequencial. Resultados: Foram incluídos 61 pacientes, mas a população final foi constituída de 10 pacientes (7 homens e 3 mulheres), em razão da análise sequencial. Ao se comparar os valores das respostas dos testes com aqueles encontrados na avaliação basal, foram verificadas mudanças nos limiares auditivos compatíveis com ototoxicidade após dois meses de tratamento através da AAF e após seis meses de tratamento através da ATL. Entretanto, essas mudanças não foram verificadas através da pesquisa de EOAPD. Conclusões: Ao se considerar o método estatístico utilizado nessa população, é possível concluir que mudanças nos limiares auditivos foram associadas ao uso da amicacina no período de seis meses por meio de AAF e ATL e que a pesquisa de EOAPD não se mostrou eficiente na identificação dessas mudanças.

Liver transplantation for acute liver failure due to antitubercular drugs - a single-center experience

OBJECTIVES: Patients receiving treatment for tuberculosis are at risk of developing acute liver failure due to the hepatotoxicity of antitubercular drugs. We aimed to describe our experience with liver transplantation from deceased donors in this situation. METHODS: We identified patients undergoing transplantation for acute liver failure due to antitubercular drugs in our prospectively maintained database. RESULTS: Of 81 patients undergoing transplantation for acute liver failure, 8 cases were attributed to antitubercular drugs during the period of 2006-2016. Regarding the time of tuberculosis treatment until the onset of jaundice, patients were on antitubercular drugs for a mean of 64.7 days (21-155 days). The model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score of patients ranged from 32 to 47 (median 38), and seven patients underwent transplantation under vasopressors. The 1-year survival was 50%. Three patients died during the week following transplantation due to septic shock (including a patient with acute liver failure due to hepatic/disseminated tuberculosis), and the remaining patient died 2 months after transplantation due to pulmonary infection. There were 2 cases of mild rejection and 1 case of moderate rejection. Of the surviving patients, all were considered cured of tuberculosis after alternative drugs were given. CONCLUSION: Patients arrived very sick and displayed poor survival after deceased donor transplantation.

Factores de riesgo asociados a reacción adversa hepática por fármacos de primera línea contra Mycobacterium tuberculosis / Risk factors associated with adverse hepatic reaction by first-line drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Resumen Para el control epidemiológico de la tuberculosis (TBC) se requiere de una terapia de alta eficacia, que logre eliminar la trasmisión mediante la curación de los pacientes. Las reacciones adversas a fármacos (RAM) contribuyen a una menor eficiencia del tratamiento. La RAM hepática es la más temida y puede llegar a ser mortal. Esta se ha relacionado a factores de riesgo como la edad avanzada, el género femenino, ciertas razas, características del metabolismo enzimático de los fármacos, asociación de fármacos, presencia de infecciones por virus de hepatitis B, C y VIH, desnutrición, trasplantados renales, embarazo, puerperio y consumo de alcohol. No existen pautas de monitoreo de la función hepática en forma regular, por lo que se recomienda la vigilancia estrecha de la aparición de síntomas sugerentes de toxicidad hepática. En algunas condiciones de alto riesgo de RAM hepática el juicio clínico podría determinar el monitoreo bioquímico de la función hepática.

Epidemiological control of tuberculosis (TB) requires a highly efficient therapy, to be able to eliminate transmission of tuberculosis. Adverse drug reactions (ADR) contribute to decrease the efficiency of treatment. Hepatic ADR is the most feared and can become fatal and has been related to risk factors such as advanced age, female gender, non-caucasian ethnic groups, characteristics of enzymatic metabolism of drugs, drug associations, presence of hepatitis B, C and HIV virus infections, malnutrition, kidney transplants, pregnancy, puerperium and alcohol consumption. There are no guidelines for monitoring liver function on a regular basis. Therefore a close monitoring of the appearance of symptoms suggestive of liver toxicity is recommended. In some conditions of high risk of hepatic ADR, clinical judgment could indicate the biochemical monitoring of liver function.

Desarrollo de infección tuberculosa latente y efectos adversos de la isoniazida durante tratamiento con biológico por enfermedad de Crohn / Development of latent tuberculosis and adverse effects with isoniazid during biologist therapy´s in Crohn´s disease / Desenvolvimento de tuberculose latente durante e efeitos adversos da isoniazida o tratamento com biológicos para a doença de Crohn

Los fármacos anti factor de necrosis tumoral alfa (TNF-α) bloquean una de las citoquinas implicadas en la patogénesis de la Enfermedad Inflamatoria intestinal (EII). Su uso se relaciona con aumento de tuberculosis (TB), por lo que el despistaje previo es obligatorio. En la infección tuberculosa latente (ITBL) se utiliza isoniazida como quimioprofilaxis, fármaco que no se encuentra libre de reacciones adversas. Se presenta y discute el caso de una paciente con reacción adversa en piel secundaria al uso de isoniazida.

Anti-tumor necrosis factor alfa drugs are responsible for blocking one of the cytoquines implicated on inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis. Its use has been linked to an increase in tuberculosis cases which is why screening before starting treatment is mandatory. Latent tuberculosis is treated with isoniazid as chemoprophylaxis although its use may provoke adverse effects. A case is presented of a patient with skin adverse reaction due to the use of isoniazid.

Os medicamentos anti factor de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-α ) bloqueiam uma das citocinas envolvidas na patogénese da doença inflamatória intestinal (DII). A sua utilização está associada com um aumento da tuberculose (TB), de modo que a despistagem anterior dessa doença é necessária. Na TB latente, frequentemente se utiliza a isoniazida é usado como quimioprofilaxia, uma droga que não está livre de reações adversas. Apresentamos e discutimos o caso de uma paciente com reação adversa na pele secundária ao uso da isoniazida.

A fatal case of tuberculous meningitis in a child with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a diagnostic challenge

Abstract The prognosis of tuberculous meningitis, a rare form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis, depends on the stage of treatment initiation. We report a fatal case of tuberculous meningitis. The patient had received successive tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists and abatacept to treat juvenile idiopathic arthritis, with negative results for polymerase chain reaction and acid-fast bacilli on smear, had normal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) adenosine deaminase and glucose levels. Six weeks post-admission, the CSF culture demonstrated Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The altered immunological responses caused by anti-TNF treatment made the diagnosis challenging. Clinicians should bear this in mind and, if suspected, treatment should be initiated immediately.

Efficacy and safety of a four-drug fixed-dose combination regimen versus separate drugs for treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract Introduction: Tuberculosis, particularly multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. To the best of our knowledge, however, no study to date has assessed the combined use of the four available drugs for tuberculosis treatment, which is an issue of great clinical relevance. Objective: To determine whether the four-drug fixed-dose combination is safer or more effective than separate drugs for treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was performed in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Results: In pooled results from five randomized controlled trials with 3502 patients across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, four-drug fixed-dose combination therapy was no better than separate drugs therapy in terms of culture conversion after 2 and 6 months of treatment. There were no significant differences between the groups in overall incidence of adverse effects. However, the meta-analytic measure (log odds ratio) revealed that separate drugs treatment had a 1.65 [exp (0.5) = 1.65] increased chance of gastrointestinal adverse effects compared to four-drug fixed-dose combination treatment. Conclusions: The reviewed studies showed that four-drug fixed-dose combination therapy provides greater patient comfort by reducing the number of pills and the incidence of gastrointestinal adverse effects, as well as simplifying pharmaceutical management at all levels.

Drug Induced Liver Injury at a Tertiary Hospital in India: Etiology, Clinical Features and Predictors of Mortality

ABSTRACT Introduction and aims. Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is rare; however, it is one of the important causes of acute liver failure which results in significant morbidity or mortality. Material and methods. Patients with suspected DILI were enrolled based on predefined criteria and followed up for at least 6 months or until normalization of liver tests. Causality assessment was done by applying the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method model. Results. We collected data from 82 individuals diagnosed with DILI at our hospital from 2014 through 2015 (41 men; median age, 38 years). The most commonly implicated drugs were antitubercular therapy (ATT) (49%), antiepileptic drugs (12%), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in 10%, antiretroviral drugs (9%) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (6%). 8 out of 13 deaths were liver related. Also, liver related mortality was significantly higher for ATT DILI (17.5%) vs. those without (2.4%) (P = 0.02). There was no significant difference in overall as well as liver related mortality in hepatocellular, cholestatic or mixed pattern of injury. Laboratory parameters at one week after discontinuation of drug predicted mortality better than those at the time of DILI recognition. On multivariate logistic regression analysis, jaundice, encephalopathy, MELD (Model for end stage liver disease) score and alkaline phosphatase at one week, independently predicted mortality. Conclusion. DILI results in significant overall mortality (15.85%). ATT, anti-epileptic drugs, CAM and antiretroviral drugs are leading causes of DILI in India. Presence of jaundice, encephalopathy, MELD score and alkaline phosphatase at one week are independent predictors of mortality.(AU)

Reacción paradójica al tratamiento antituberculosis en una niña inmunocompetente afectada de tuberculosis ganglionar pulmonar / Paradoxical reaction to antituberculosis treatment in an immunocompetent girl with pulmonary tuberculosis

La reacción paradójica al tratamiento antituberculoso es una entidad poco frecuente en pediatría. Se presenta el caso de una niña de 9 años con fiebre, tos y expectoración de tres semanas de evolución. La prueba de tuberculina y Quantiferon fueron positivos; la velocidad de sedimentación era de 64 mm/h; el cultivo y la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa para M. tuberculosis fueron negativos. La radiografía de tórax mostró ensanchamiento mediastínico derecho. Ante el diagnóstico de tuberculosis, se inició un tratamiento con rifampicina, isoniacida, pirazinamida y etambutol en dosis estándar. A los 21 días, reapareció la fiebre elevada sin otra sintomatología, empeoramiento radiológico junto con normalidad de serologías, analítica sanguínea y resonancia cerebral. Se diagnosticó una reacción paradójica; se inició 1 mg/kg/día de prednisona oral, y quedó afebril a las 24 horas. Es importante considerar esta entidad cuando otras causas de empeoramiento clínico y/o radiológico se han descartado para evitar pruebas complementarias y modificaciones de tratamiento innecesarias.

Paradoxical reaction to antituberculosis treatment is rare in paediatric population. We report a 9-year-old girl with high fever and productive cough for the last three weeks. Tuberculine test and Quantiferon were positive, erythrocyte sedimentation rate was 64 mm/h, culture and polymerase chain reaction for M. tuberculosis negative, and chest X ray showed a widened right mediastinum. Tuberculosis was diagnosed, therefore treatment with standard doses of rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol was started. Twenty-one days later she presented high fever with no other symptoms, worsening of radiological findings and normal blood tests, serologies and brain magnetic resonance imaging. The patient presented a paradoxical reaction and was given prednisone 1 mg/kg/day, fever disappeared in 24 hours. It is important to consider a paradoxical reaction when other causes of clinical and/or radiological worsening have been ruled out, to avoid unnecessary tests and treatment modifications.

Reacciones paradójicas en el tratamiento de la tuberculosis ganglionar / Paradoxical reactions during tuberculosis lymphadenitis treatment

Lymphadenitis tuberculosis is the most frequent form of non pulmonary tuberculosis. Its incidence has increased in the last years probably because HIV co-infection. Usually manifests like a swelling of lymph nodes in the cervical region without constitutional symptoms. Diagnostics tests yields are poorer than in pulmonary tuberculosis probably due to the scarce bacillus population. Treatment is the same of pulmonary tuberculosis, but paradoxical reactions are far more frequent. These reactions, specially the latest presentations ones very often are treated as recurrence of the disease. Although this is always a possibility, in most cases they are due to an hypersensitivity reaction. In this article we present an illustrative case, an update on tuberculosis lymphadenitis and a review of the paradoxical reactions during its treatment.

La tuberculosis ganglionar es la forma más frecuente de tuberculosis extrapulmonar. Su incidencia ha aumentado, probablemente por la co-infección con VIH. Su presentación clínica más habitual es con un aumento de volumen de los ganglios cervicales sin síntomas constitucionales. Las pruebas diagnósticas tienen menos rendimiento que en la tuberculosis pulmonar por ser una enfermedad con menor población bacilar. Para el tratamiento se utilizan las mismas drogas y duración que en tuberculosis pulmonar, pero existe mayor incidencia de reacciones paradojales, las que pueden ser de difícil manejo. En este artículo presentamos primero un caso clínico particularmente ilustrativo, seguido de una puesta al día sobre tuberculosis ganglionar, incluyendo una revisión sobre el manejo de sus reacciones paradójicas.

Early monitoring for detection of antituberculous drug-induced hepatotoxicity

BACKGROUND/AIMS: We investigated the time of onset of antituberculous drug-induced hepatotoxicity (ADIH) and related characteristics. METHODS: Adult patients (n = 1,031) treated with first-line antituberculous drugs between February 2009 and January 2013 were enrolled. RESULTS: Of the 1,031 patients, 108 patients (10.5%) developed ADIH a mean of 39.6 +/- 43.7 days after treatment initiation. Twenty-eight patients (25.9%) developed ADIH within 7 days, 73 (67.6%) within 30 days, and the rest after 30 days. The 30-day group. In subgroup analysis, the 40 IU/L (odds ratio [OR], 2.995; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.580 to 5.680; p = 0.001) and presence of anti-hepatitis C virus (OR, 4.204; 95% CI, 1.822 to 9.700, p = 0.001) were independent risk factors for development of ADIH. CONCLUSIONS: Approximately 70% of the cases of ADIH occurred in the first month of antituberculous treatment, and were associated with continuation of the first-line drug regimen.

Emerging strategies for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: promise and limitations?

A worsening scenario of drug-resistant tuberculosis has increased the need for new treatment strategies to tackle this worldwide emergency. There is a pressing need to simplify and shorten the current 6-month treatment regimen for drug-susceptible tuberculosis. Rifamycins and fluoroquinolones, as well as several new drugs, are potential candidates under evaluation. At the same time, treatment outcomes of patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis should be improved through optimizing the use of fluoroquinolones, repurposed agents and newly developed drugs. In this context, the safety and tolerance of new therapeutic approaches must be addressed.