Validation of Reference Genes for Quantitative Real-Time PCR in Bovine PBMCs Transformed and Non-transformed by Theileria annulata

Theileria annulata is a tick-borne intracellular protozoan parasite that causes tropical theileriosis, a fatal bovine lymphoproliferative disease. The parasite predominantly invades bovine B lymphocytes and macrophages and induces host cell transformation by a mechanism that is not fully comprehended. Analysis of signaling pathways by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) could be a highly efficient means to understand this transformation mechanism. However, accurate analysis of qPCR data relies on selection of appropriate reference genes for normalization, yet few papers on T. annulata contain evidence of reference gene validation. We therefore used the geNorm and NormFinder programs to evaluate the stability of 5 candidate reference genes; 18S rRNA, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), ACTB (β-actin), PRKG1 (protein kinase cGMP-dependent, type I) and TATA box binding protein (TBP). The results showed that 18S rRNA was the reference gene most stably expressed in bovine PBMCs transformed and non-transformed with T. annulata, followed by GAPDH and TBP. While 18S rRNA and GAPDH were the best combination, these 2 genes were chosen as references to study signaling pathways involved in the transformation mechanism of T. annulata.

Cultura de células de tecidos de Biomphalaria tenagophila (Orbigny, 1835) e Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1918) como ferramenta no estudo das interações entre hospedeiro invertebrado e Schistosoma mansoni (Sambom, 1907)

A esquistossomose mansoni é uma doença endêmica no Brasil, causada pelo trematódeo digeneico Schistosoma mansoni. Em seu ciclo de vida, o parasito tem uma passagem obrigatória por caramujos do gênero Biomphalaria, hospedeiros invertebrados que ocupam papel central no processo de transmissão da doença. O estudo da interação entre parasito-hospedeiro invertebrado vem se desenvolvendo ao longo dos anos, entretanto sem solucionar a carência de modelos in vitro que simulem a infecção. As células Bge, modelo estabelecido para se estudar a interação, não estão mais disponíveis nos bancos de células comerciais, restando apenas modelos celulares de curta duração. Com o objetivo de explorar novas ferramentas no estudo das interações parasito-hospedeiro invertebrado em esquistossomose, realizamos o presente estudo que estabeleceu, caracterizou e explorou a funcionalidade de culturas celulares primárias de espécimes adultos de Biomphalaria como modelos na interação in vitro com esporocistos de S. mansoni. Foram utilizadas duas espécies de caramujos, Biomphalaria glabrata, como modelo susceptível à infecção por S. mansoni, e Biomphalaria tenagophila Taim, como modelo de resistência absoluta à infecção por este mesmo parasito. Baseados em características ultraestruturais das células em culturas primárias derivadas de diversos tecidos, selecionamos as células derivadas da glândula digestiva e do tubo renal sacular para os ensaios de interação com o parasito

As culturas celulares derivadas da glândula digestiva de B. tenagophila Taim foram capazes de matar, in vitro, esporocistos primários de S. mansoni. As culturas primárias derivadas do tubo renal sacular dessa mesma linhagem, e as culturas homólogas de B. glabrata, dos dois tecidos, não apresentaram esta atividade letal em ensaios in vitro. Para acompanhamento de possíveis alterações moleculares nas culturas celulares após interação com o parasito, utilizamos a expressão do transcrito aif, estimulador da atividade e proliferação de hemócitos, como indicador. Após a interação, a expressão de aif foi aumentada, somente nas células derivadas da glândula digestiva de B. tenagophila Taim, corroborando os resultados anteriores

A análise ultraestrutural das células das culturas testadas mostrou que, dentre as células derivadas da glândula digestiva, há um perfil de hemócitos tipo-granulócitos diferentes dos hemócitos tipo-granulócitos circulantes. O perfil ultraestrutural de células derivadas do tubo renal sacular apresentaram semelhança com o obtido, anteriormente, para células do órgão produtor de hemócitos (APO). No entanto, os testes de atividade sugerem que, apesar das semelhanças, tratam-se de culturas distintas. Para a obtenção de modelos não senescentes, foi realizada a tentativa de imortalização das culturas de células derivadas do tubo renal sacular de B. tenagophila Taim, através da introdução do gene da telomerase transcriptase reversa. Entretanto as tentativas de imortalização dos modelos analisados foram ineficazes, com dificuldades na obtenção de culturas livres de contaminantes biológicos e ausência de proliferação celular. O presente trabalho mostra, pela primeira vez, a ação letal de hemócitos presentes na glândula digestiva de caramujos B. tenagophila linhagem Taim contra esporocistos de S. mansoni. A prioridade para continuação da linha de pesquisas aponta para novas tentativas de imortalização visando a obtenção de uma nova ferramenta para o estudo da interação Biomphalaria/S. mansoni

Impact of the age of Biomphalaria alexandrina snails on Schistosoma mansoni transmission: modulation of the genetic outcome and the internal defence system of the snail

Of the approximately 34 identified Biomphalariaspecies,Biomphalaria alexandrinarepresents the intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoniin Egypt. Using parasitological and SOD1 enzyme assay, this study aimed to elucidate the impact of the age of B. alexandrinasnails on their genetic variability and internal defence against S. mansoniinfection. Susceptible and resistant snails were reared individually for self-reproduction; four subgroups of their progeny were used in experiment. The young susceptible subgroup showed the highest infection rate, the shortest pre-patent period, the highest total cercarial production, the highest mortality rate and the lowest SOD1 activity. Among the young and adult susceptible subgroups, 8% and 26% were found to be resistant, indicating the inheritance of resistance alleles from parents. The adult resistant subgroup, however, contained only resistant snails and showed the highest enzyme activity. The complex interaction between snail age, genetic background and internal defence resulted in great variability in compatibility patterns, with the highest significant difference between young susceptible and adult resistant snails. The results demonstrate that resistance alleles function to a greater degree in adults, with higher SOD1 activity and provide potential implications for Biomphalariacontrol. The identification of the most susceptible snail age enables determination of the best timing for applying molluscicides. Moreover, adult resistant snails could be beneficial in biological snail control.

The remarkable journey of adaptation of the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite to New World anopheline mosquitoes

Plasmodium falciparum originated in Africa, dispersed around the world as a result of human migration and had to adapt to several different indigenous anopheline mosquitoes. Anophelines from the New World are evolutionary distant form African ones and this probably resulted in a more stringent selection of Plasmodium as it adapted to these vectors. It is thought that Plasmodium has been genetically selected by some anopheline species through unknown mechanisms. The mosquito immune system can greatly limit infection and P. falciparum evolved a strategy to evade these responses, at least in part mediated by Pfs47, a highly polymorphic gene. We propose that adaptation of P. falciparum to new vectors may require evasion of their immune system. Parasites with a Pfs47 haplotype compatible with the indigenous mosquito vector would be able to survive and be transmitted. The mosquito antiplasmodial response could be an important determinant of P. falciparum population structure and could affect malaria transmission in the Americas.

Estudo da susceptibilidade de Lutzomyia ( L. ) longipalpis com diferentes espécies de Leishmania

Estudos da interação Leishmania-flebotomíneo constituem um importante campo de pesquisa,já que podem contribuir com o conhecimento dos processos envolvidos na transmissão do parasito e na epidemiologia das Leishmanioses. Diante da não existência de uma vacina efetiva contra a doença e de uma variedade limitada de drogas para o tratamento, detalhes de todos os aspectos da interação parasito-vetor são desejáveis para a formulação de novas estratégias de controle contra o protozoário e o vetor. Algumas espécies de flebotomíneos mostram notável especificidade para os parasitos de Leishmania transmitidos na natureza,enquanto outras espécies podem se infectar, experimentalmente, por mais de uma espécie de parasito. À essas últimas têm sido sugerido o termo "Vetores Permissivos”. Ainda não se sabe ao certo como funciona a interação Vetores Permissivos-Leishmania, mas acredita-se que o mecanismo de adesão do parasito ao intestino médio dos vetores permissivos seja diferente dos Vetores Naturais. O trabalho aqui apresentado descreve o desenvolvimento de quatro espécies distintas de Leishmania (Leishmania (Leishmania) major, Leishmania (Leishmania)amazonensis, Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis e Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi) em Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis, considerado um vetor permissivo.

Esse desenvolvimento foi acompanhado utilizando a técnica de infecção experimental com três diferentes doses de parasitos (4x107, 2x107, 1x107). Os intestinos médios dos flebotomíneos infectados foram analisados no 2º e 6º dias após a infecção experimental. O sangue ainda está presente no intestino do vetor no 2º dia após a infecção, mas se encontra totalmente digerido no 6º dia. Foi observado que após a digestão sanguínea, em todas as diferentes doses utilizadas, o inseto suporta a infecção por L. (L.) chagasi, L. (L.) major e L. (L.) amazonensis, mas não por L. (V.)braziliensis que foi capaz de se desenvolver no vetor apenas na dose mais alta (4x107), mas com uma média de infecção baixa. Leishmania (L.) amazonensis e L. (L.) major mostraram uma média de 7000 parasitos quando utilizamos a menor dose, porém não podemos afirmar que estas espécies são capazes de transmitir a doença.

Estudo da susceptibilidade de Lutzomyia ( L. ) longipalpis com diferentes espécies de Leishmania / Study susceptibility of Lutzomyia ( L. ) longipalpis with different species of Leishmania

Estudos da interação Leishmania-flebotomíneo constituem um importante campo de pesquisa,já que podem contribuir com o conhecimento dos processos envolvidos na transmissão do parasito e na epidemiologia das Leishmanioses. Diante da não existência de uma vacina efetiva contra a doença e de uma variedade limitada de drogas para o tratamento, detalhes de todos os aspectos da interação parasito-vetor são desejáveis para a formulação de novas estratégias de controle contra o protozoário e o vetor. Algumas espécies de flebotomíneos mostram notável especificidade para os parasitos de Leishmania transmitidos na natureza,enquanto outras espécies podem se infectar, experimentalmente, por mais de uma espécie de parasito. À essas últimas têm sido sugerido o termo "Vetores Permissivos”. Ainda não se sabe ao certo como funciona a interação Vetores Permissivos-Leishmania, mas acredita-se que o mecanismo de adesão do parasito ao intestino médio dos vetores permissivos seja diferente dos Vetores Naturais. O trabalho aqui apresentado descreve o desenvolvimento de quatro espécies distintas de Leishmania (Leishmania (Leishmania) major, Leishmania (Leishmania)amazonensis, Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis e Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi) em Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis, considerado um vetor permissivo...

Esse desenvolvimento foi acompanhado utilizando a técnica de infecção experimental com três diferentes doses de parasitos (4x107, 2x107, 1x107). Os intestinos médios dos flebotomíneos infectados foram analisados no 2º e 6º dias após a infecção experimental. O sangue ainda está presente no intestino do vetor no 2º dia após a infecção, mas se encontra totalmente digerido no 6º dia. Foi observado que após a digestão sanguínea, em todas as diferentes doses utilizadas, o inseto suporta a infecção por L. (L.) chagasi, L. (L.) major e L. (L.) amazonensis, mas não por L. (V.)braziliensis que foi capaz de se desenvolver no vetor apenas na dose mais alta (4x107), mas com uma média de infecção baixa. Leishmania (L.) amazonensis e L. (L.) major mostraram uma média de 7000 parasitos quando utilizamos a menor dose, porém não podemos afirmar que estas espécies são capazes de transmitir a doença...

The relationship between genetic variability and the susceptibility of Biomphalaria alexandrina snails to Schistosoma mansoni infection

In the present study, Biomphalaria snails collected from five Egyptian governorates (Giza, Fayoum, Kafr El-Sheikh, Ismailia and Damietta), as well as reference control Biomphalaria alexandrina snails from the Schistosome Biological Supply Center (SBSC) (Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Egypt), were subjected to species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to identify the collected species. All of the collected snails were found to be B. alexandrina and there was no evidence of the presence of Biomphalaria glabrata. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR assays showed different fingerprints with varying numbers of bands for the first generation (F1) of B. alexandrina snail populations (SBSC, Giza, Fayoum, Kafr El-Sheikh, Ismailia and Damietta). The primer OPA-1 produced the highest level of polymorphism and amplified the greatest number of specific bands. The estimated similarity coefficients among the B. alexandrina populations based on the RAPD-PCR profiles ranged from 0.56 (between SBSC and Ismailia snails) to 0.72 (between Ismailia and Kafr El-Sheikh snails). Experimental infection of the F1 of progeny from the collected snails with Schistosoma mansoni (SBSC strain) showed variable susceptibility rates ranging from 15% in the Fayoum snail group to 50.3% in SBSC snails. A negative correlation was observed between the infection rates in the different snail groups and the distances separating their corresponding governorates from the parasite source. The infection rates of the snail groups and their similarity coefficients with SBSC B. alexandrina snails were positively correlated. The variations in the rates of infection of different B. alexandrina groups with S. mansoni, as well as the differences in the similarity coefficients among these snails, are dependent not only on the geographical distribution of the snails and the parasite, but also on the genetic variability of the snails. Introduction of this variability into endemic areas may reduce the ability of the parasite to infect local hosts and consequently reduce schistosomiasis epidemiology.

Novel regulatory SNPs in the promoter region of the TNFRSF18 gene in a Gabonese population

Parasites are accountable for driving diversity within immune gene families. We identified and investigated regulatory single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the promoter regions of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 18 (TNFRSF18) gene by direct sequencing in a group of male Gabonese individuals exposed to a wide array of parasitic diseases such as malaria, filariasis and schistosomiasis. Two new promoter variants were identified in 40 individuals. Both novel variants were heterozygous and were linked to SNP #rs3753344 (C/T), which has been described. One of the SNP variants (ss2080581728) was close to the general transcription factor site, the TATA box. We further validated these new promoter variants for their allelic gene expression using transient transfection assays. One new promoter variant with two base changes (C/T - ss2080581728/rs3753344) displayed an altered expression of the marker gene. Both novel variants remained less active at the non-induced state in comparison to the major allele. The allele frequencies observed in this study were consistent with data for other African populations. The detection and analysis of these human immune gene polymorphisms contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between host-parasite and expression of Treg activity.

Inheritance of Schistosoma mansoni infection incompatibility in Biomphalaria alexandrina snails

In this study, we looked at the inheritance of susceptibility and resistance to Schistosoma mansoni infection in the first generation of crossbred Biomphalaria alexandrina snails. Our ultimate goal is to use such information to develop a biological method of controlling schistosomiasis. We infected laboratory-bred snails with S. mansoni miracidia and examined cercarial shedding to determine susceptibility and resistance. Five parental groups were used: Group I contained 30 susceptible snails, Group II contained 30 resistant snails, Group III contained 15 susceptible and 15 resistant snails, Group IV contained 27 susceptible and three resistant snails and Group V contained three susceptible and 27 resistant snails. The percentage of resistant snails in the resulting progeny varied according to the ratio of susceptible and resistant parents per group; they are 7 percent, 100 percent, 68 percent, 45 percent and 97 percent from Groups I, II, III, IV and V, respectively. On increasing the percentage of resistant parent snails, the percentage of resistant progeny increased, while cercarial production in their susceptible progeny decreased.

Coadaptation and malaria control

Malaria emerges from a disequilibrium of the system 'human-plasmodium-mosquito' (HPM). If the equilibrium is maintained, malaria does not ensue and the result is asymptomatic plasmodium infection. The relationships among the components of the system involve coadaptive linkages that lead to equilibrium. A vast body of evidence supports this assumption, including the strategies involved in the relationships between plasmodium and human and mosquito immune systems, and the emergence of resistance of plasmodia to antimalarial drugs and of mosquitoes to insecticides. Coadaptive strategies for malaria control are based on the following principles: (1) the system HPM is composed of three highly complex and dynamic components, whose interplay involves coadaptive linkages that tend to maintain the equilibrium of the system; (2) human and mosquito immune systems play a central role in the coadaptive interplay with plasmodium, and hence, in the mainten-ance of the system's equilibrium; the under- or overfunction of human immune system may result in malaria and influence its severity; (3) coadaptation depends on genetic and epigenetic phenomena occurring at the interfaces of the components of the system, and may involve exchange of infectrons (genes or gene fragments) between the partners; (4) plasmodia and mosquitoes have been submitted to selective pressures, leading to adaptation, for an extremely long while and are, therefore, endowed with the capacity to circumvent both natural (immunity) and artificial (drugs, insecticides, vaccines) measures aiming at destroying them; (5) since malaria represents disequilibrium of the system HPM, its control should aim at maintaining or restoring this equilibrium; (6) the disequilibrium of integrated systems involves the disequilibrium of their components, therefore the maintenance or restoration of the system's equilibrium depend on the adoption of integrated and coordinated measures acting on all components,...

Hitchhiking Trypanosoma cruzi minicircle DNA affects gene expression in human host cells via LINE-1 retrotransposon

The horizontal transfer of Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondrial minicircle DNA to the genomes of naturally infected humans may play an important role in the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. Minicircle integrations within LINE-1 elements create the potential for foreign DNA mobility within the host genome via the machinery associated with this retrotransposon. Here we document integration of minicircle DNA fragments in clonal human macrophage cell lines and their mobilization over time. The movement of an integration event in a clonal transfected cell line was tracked at three months and three years post-infection. The minicircle sequence integrated into a LINE-1 retrotransposon; one such foreign fragment subsequently relocated to another genomic location in association with associated LINE-1 elements. The p15 locus was altered at three years as a direct effect of minicircle/LINE-1 acquisition, resulting in elimination of p15 mRNA. Here we show for the first time a molecular pathology stemming from mobilization of a kDNA/LINE-1 mutation. These genomic changes and detected transcript variations are consistent with our hypothesis that minicircle integration is a causal component of parasite-independent, autoimmune-driven lesions seen in the heart and other target tissues associated with Chagas disease.

Identification of a genetic marker associated with the resistance to Schistosoma mansoni infection using random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis

In schistosomiasis, the host/parasite interaction remains not completely understood. Many questions related to the susceptibility of snails to infection by respective trematode still remain unanswered. The control of schistosomiasis requires a good understanding of the host/parasite association. In this work, the susceptibility/resistance to Schistosoma mansoni infection within Biomphalaria alexandrina snails were studied starting one month post infection and continuing thereafter weekly up to 10 weeks after miracidia exposure. Genetic variations between susceptible and resistant strains to Schistosoma infection within B. alexandrina snails using random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis technique were also carried out. The results showed that 39.8 percent of the examined field snails were resistant, while 60.2 percent of these snails showed high infection rates.In the resistant genotype snails, OPA-02 primer produced a major low molecular weight marker 430 bp. Among the two snail strains there were interpopulational variations, while the individual specimens from the same snail strain, either susceptible or resistant, record semi-identical genetic bands. Also, the resistant character was ascendant in contrast to a decline in the susceptibility of snails from one generation to the next.

Patterns of tuberculosis in the Americas: how can modern biomedicine inform the ancient past?

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that continues to take its toll on human lives. Paleopathological research indicates that it has been a significant cause of death among humans for at least five thousand years. Because of the devastating consequences to human health, social systems, and endangered primate species, TB has been the subject of many and varied research efforts throughout the world, efforts that are amassing an enormous amount of data concerning the causative agent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Despite sequencing of the M. tuberculosis genome and numerous molecular epidemiological studies, many questions remain regarding the origin, evolution, and future co-evolutionary trajectory of M. tuberculosis and humans. Indeed, the origin of pre-Columbian New World TB has been and remains hotly debated, and resolution of this controversy will likely only come with integration of data and theory from multiple disciplines. In this paper, we discuss the pre-Columbian TB controversy, and then use research from biological and biomedical sciences to help inform paleopathological and archaeological studies of this ubiquitous disease that plagued our ancient forbears.

Biomphalaria tenagophila: dynamics of populations of resistant and susceptible strains to Schistosoma mansoni, with or without pressure of the parasite

Resistant (Taim, RS) and susceptible albino (Joinville, SC) Biomphalaria tenagophila populations were kept together, at different proportions, throughout a 18-month-period. Some of the snail groups were submitted to Schistosoma mansoni infection. The targets of this study were (a) to analyze the populational dynamics among resistant and susceptible individuals to S. mansoni; (b) to study the resistance phenotype in descendants of cross-breeding; (c) to observe whether the parasite could exert any kind of selection in those snail populations. Throughout the experiment it could be observed that the susceptible B. tenagophila strain (Joinville) underwent a selective pressure of the parasite that was negative, since the individuals showed a high mortality rate. Although B. tenagophila (Taim) population presented a higher mortality rate without pressure of the parasite, this event was compensated by a reproductive capacity. B. tenagophila Taim was more fecund than B. tenagophila Joinville and was able to transmit the resistance character to their descendants. F1 generation obtained by cross-breeding between resistant and susceptible lineages was completely resistant to S. mansoni infection, irrespective of the Taim proportion. Moreover, less than 5 percent of F2 progeny were susceptible to S. mansoni infection.

A bacterial artificial chromosome library for Biomphalaria glabrata, intermediate snail host of Schistosoma mansoni

To provide a novel resource for analysis of the genome of Biomphalaria glabrata, members of the international Biomphalaria glabrata Genome Initiative (biology.unm.edu/biomphalaria-genome.html), working with the Arizona Genomics Institute (AGI) and supported by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), produced a high quality bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library. The BB02 strain B. glabrata, a field isolate (Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil) that is susceptible to several strains of Schistosoma mansoni, was selfed for two generations to reduce haplotype diversity in the offspring. High molecular weight DNA was isolated from ovotestes of 40 snails, partially digested with HindIII, and ligated into pAGIBAC1 vector. The resulting B. glabrata BAC library (BG_BBa) consists of 61824 clones (136.3 kb average insert size) and provides 9.05 × coverage of the 931 Mb genome. Probing with single/low copy number genes from B. glabrata and fingerprinting of selected BAC clones indicated that the BAC library sufficiently represents the gene complement. BAC end sequence data (514 reads, 299860 nt) indicated that the genome of B. glabrata contains ~ 63 percent AT, and disclosed several novel genes, transposable elements, and groups of high frequency sequence elements. This BG_BBa BAC library, available from AGI at cost to the research community, gains in relevance because BB02 strain B. glabrata is targeted whole genome sequencing by NHGRI.

Molecular basis of mammalian cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi

O estabelecimento da infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi, o agente da doença de Chagas, depende de uma série de eventos envolvendo interações de diversas moléculas do parasita com componentes do hospedeiro. Focalizamos aqui os mecanismos de invasão celular por tripomastigotas metacíclicos (TM) e por tripomastigotas de cultura de tecido (TCT). Durante a internalização de TM ou TCT, vias de transdução de sinal são ativadas tanto no parasita como na célula alvo, acarretando a mobilização de Ca2+. Para adesão, TM utiliza as glicoproteínas de superfície como a gp82 e gp35/50, que são moléculas indutoras de sinal de Ca2+. Em isolados de T. cruzi que entram na célula hospedeira de maneira dependente de gp82, a proteína tirosina quinase assim como a fosfolipase C do parasita são ativadas, e Ca2+ é liberado de reservatórios sensíveis a IP3, enquanto em isolados de T. cruzi que se ligam às células alvo através de gp35/50, a via de sinalização envolvendo adenilil ciclase parece ser estimulada, com liberação de Ca2+ de acidocalciossomos. Além disso, dependendo do isolado de T. cruzi, sinais inibitórios mediados por gp90 específica de TM podem ser desencadeados tanto na célula hospedeira como no parasita. O repertório de moléculas de TCT implicadas na invasão celular inclui glicoproteínas de superfície da família gp85, com membros contendo sitos de ligação à laminina e citoqueratina 18, enzimas como a cruzipaína, trans-sialidase, e uma oligopeptidase B que gera um agonista de Ca2+ a partir de uma molécula precursora. .

Behavior of Angiostrongylus costaricensis in planorbids

Alguns moluscos terrestres são hospedeiros naturais do Angiostrongylus costaricensis. No laboratório, esse nematódeo pode ser mantido em planorbídeos, que são moluscos aquáticos e hospedeiros intermediários do Schistosoma mansoni. Os moluscos podem ser infectados com A. costaricensis por ingestão ou por penetração ativa de larvas de primeiro estágio. Neste trabalho, testamos a habilidade de Biomphalaria glabrata em atrair larvas de primeiro estágio de A. costaricensis. A movimentação das larvas do nematódeo em direção aos moluscos foi observada após 15 minutos, 30 minutos e 1 hora. B. glabrata não atraiu as larvas de primeiro estágio de A. costaricensis nos três intervalos de tempo. Verificamos também a suscetibilidade de duas populações de Biomphalaria tenagophila à infecção por A. costaricensis. Uma população era selecionada geneticamente para a susceptibilidade ao S. mansoni, enquanto a outra não o era. Larvas de terceiro estágio foram recuperadas dos moluscos 30 dias após a exposição das duas populações a 120 larvas de primeiro estágio. Todos os moluscos estavam infectados. Entretanto, um número significativamente maior de larvas de terceiro estágio foi recuperado em moluscos não geneticamente selecionados.

Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts

Molecular trees of trypanosomes have confirmed conventionally accepted genera, but often produce topologies that are incongruent with knowledge of the evolution, systematics, and biogeography of hosts and vectors. These distorted topologies result largely from incorrect assumptions about molecular clocks. A host-based phylogenetic tree could serve as a broad outline against which the reasonability of molecular phylogenies could be evaluated. The host-based tree of trypanosomes presented here supports the " invertebrate first " hypothesis of trypansosome evolution, supports the monophyly of Trypanosomatidae, and indicates the digenetic lifestyle arose three times. An area cladogram of Leishmania supports origination in the Palaearctic during the Palaeocene.

Arabidopsis thaliana: A model host plant to study plant-pathogen interaction using Chilean field isolates of Botrytis cinerea

One of the fungal pathogens that causes more agriculture damage is Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis is a constant threat to crops because the fungus infects a wide range of host species, both native and cultivated. Furthermore, Botrytis persists on plant debris in and on the soil. Some of the most serious diseases caused by Botrytis include gray mold on vegetables and fruits, such as grapes and strawberries. Botrytis also causes secondary soft rot of fruits and vegetables during storage, transit and at the market. In many plant-pathogen interactions, resistance often is associated with the deposition of callose, accumulation of autofluorescent compounds, the synthesis and accumulation of salicylic acid as well as pathogenesis-related proteins. Arabidopsis thaliana has been used as a plant model to study plant-pathogen interaction. The genome of Arabidopsis has been completely sequenced and this plant serves as a good genetic and molecular model. In this study, we demonstrate that Chilean field isolates infect Arabidopsis thaliana and that Arabidopsis subsequently activates several defense response mechanisms associated with a hypersensitive response. Furthermore, we propose that Arabidopsis may be used as a model host species to analyze the diversity associated with infectivity among populations of Botrytis cinerea field isolates...