Brazilian experts' consensus on the treatment of infantile epileptic spasm syndrome in infants / Consenso de especialistas brasileiros sobre o tratamento da síndrome dos espasmos infantis em lactentes

Abstract Background Infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) is a rare but severe condition affecting children early and is usually secondary to an identifiable brain disorder. It is related to psychomotor deterioration in childhood and epilepsy in adult life. Treatment is challenging as infantile spasms may not respond to most antiseizure medication, and relapse is frequent. Objective To evaluate the literature regarding treatment of IESS and provide a practical guidance to a healthcare system with limited resources. Methods An expert committee from the Brazilian Society of Child Neurology reviewed and discussed relevant scientific evidence in the treatment of IESS regarding the drugs available in Brazil. Results Oral prednisolone and vigabatrin are the most common drugs used as first-line therapy; they are efficient and affordable therapy as both are available in the Brazilian unified health system (SUS, in the Portuguese acronym). Intramuscular adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) presents similar efficacy as oral prednisolone but has a higher cost and is not available in Brazil. Other antiseizure medications such as topiramate, levetiracetam, or benzodiazepines have limited response and are prescribed as adjuvant therapy. If the health service has nutritionists, a ketogenic diet should be implemented for those not responding to hormonal and vigabatrin treatment. Epilepsy surgery is mainly indicated for patients with focal lesions that do not respond to pharmacological therapy. Conclusion Early treatment of IESS with efficient drugs is feasible in our country. Using standard protocols increases the odds of achieving complete cessation in a shorter time and decreases relapse.

Resumo Antecedentes A síndrome do espasmo epiléptico infantil (IESS) é uma condição rara, mas grave, que afeta crianças precocemente e geralmente é secundária a um distúrbio cerebral identificável, estando relacionada a deterioração psicomotora na infância e a epilepsia na vida adulta. O tratamento é desafiador, pois os espasmos infantis podem não responder à maioria dos medicamentos anticrises e as recidivas são frequentes. Objetivo Avaliar a literatura sobre o tratamento de IESS e fornecer uma orientação prática para um sistema de saúde com recursos limitados. Métodos Um comitê de especialistas da Sociedade Brasileira de Neurologia Infantil revisou e discutiu evidências científicas relevantes no tratamento da IESS em relação aos medicamentos disponíveis no Brasil. Resultados Prednisolona oral e vigabatrina são os fármacos mais comumente usados como terapia de primeira linha; são eficientes e acessíveis, já que ambos estão disponíveis no sistema único de saúde brasileiro (SUS). O ACTH intramuscular apresenta eficácia semelhante à prednisolona oral, mas tem custo mais elevado e não está disponível no Brasil. Outros medicamentos anticonvulsivos, como topiramato, levetiracetam ou benzodiazepínicos, têm resposta limitada e são prescritos como terapia adjuvante. Se o serviço de saúde tiver nutricionista, deve-se implementar dieta cetogênica para aqueles que não respondem ao tratamento hormonal e vigabatrina. A cirurgia de epilepsia é indicada principalmente para pacientes com lesões focais que não respondem à terapia farmacológica. Conclusão O tratamento precoce da IESS com fármacos eficazes é factível em nosso meio. O uso de protocolos padronizados aumenta as chances de alcançar a cessação completa em um tempo menor e diminui a recaída.

Global developmental delay and epileptic encephalopathy caused by SPTAN1 gene mutations in 3 cases and literature review / 中华神经科杂志

Objective:To summarize the clinical manifestations, gene variations,and treatment of cases with SPTAN1 gene variations characterized by global developmental delay or epileptic encephalopathy. Methods:Three patients with SPTAN1 gene mutations which caused developmental epileptic encephalopathy type 5 admitted to the Department of Pediatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University from August 2019 to September 2021 were collected. The studies till December 2021 were searched with keywords of " SPTAN1" and "developmental and epileptic encephalopathy 5" in both English and Chinese databases of China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, and PubMed. The clinical manifestations, genetic variations, treatments and prognosis of patients with SPTAN1 gene variations were summarized. Results:All 3 patients presented with global developmental delay, infant onset. Patient 1 showed early-onset epileptic encephalopathies and microcephaly. Patient 2 had an atrial septal defect. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of patient 3 showed cerebellar hypoplasia.Antiepileptic seizure therapy was partially effective, but failed to control the spasm. Development was slightly improved after rehabilitation training and other treatments, but still lagged behind the children of the same age. The SPTAN1 gene mutations of the 3 cases were heterozygous mutations, c.6923_6928dup, c.6619_6621delGAG and c.6749T>C, respectively. c.6749T>C was not reported in the previous literature. Thirteen case reports, including 69 patients, were collected. Sixty-seven patients had heterozygous mutations, inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, including 35 missense mutations, 12 deletion mutations, 11 repetition mutations, 9 nonsense mutations, and the rest 2 patients had compound heterozygous missense mutations. A total of 38 different variation sites were reported. The phenotypes of 69 patients from the previous studies mainly included intellectual impairment (32/69), seizures (30/69), developmental delay (28/69), progressive microcephaly (27/69), hypotonia (23/69), poor visual attention (15/69), spastic quadriplegia (9/69), and gastrointestinal abnormalities (7/69). The primary type of seizures was epileptic spasm. Cranial MRI abnormalities mainly included cerebellar and brainstem atrophy, corpus callosum dysplasia, myelin dysplasia, and brain atrophy. Previous reports showed that a variety of anti-seizure drugs were effective for epileptic seizures. The prognosis varied greatly. Severe cases could be fatal, and mild cases only manifested as mild mental retardation or movement disorders. Conclusions:SPTAN1 gene mutation leads to developmental epileptic encephalopathy type 5, the phenotypes of which include intellectual impairment, global developmental delay, infantile spasms, and head deformity.Antiepileptic drugs and functional training can improve the symptoms, but the prognosis is still poor. This study expands the SPTAN1 gene variant spectrum, enriches the mutant spectrum of SPTAN1 gene associated with developmental epileptic encephalopathy type 5.

Vigabatrin-associated brain abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging in the treatment of infantile spasms: a case report / 中华神经科杂志

Vigabatrin-associated brain abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging (VABAM) is a relatively rare side effect of vigabatrin, most of which are asymptomatic. However, there will be extremely rare cases with hyperkinetic disorders, myoclonus, tremor, and acute encephalopathy under certain circumstances. VABAM is often underappreciated by physicians and its accurate incidence remains unclear. A female infant who was diagnosed with infantile spasms and required adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy accompanied by various antiseizure medicines was reported. Unfortunately, she became lethargic and her spasm deteriorated gradually after vigabatrin exposure. Her brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed abnormal signals bilaterally in the dorsal midbrain, thalamus, and rostral part of the pallidum. She had a seizure amelioration and became lively as a result of vigabatrin withdrawal. In the meanwhile, magnetic resonance imaging returned to normal. Attempts were made to discover the risk factors of VABAM and potential pathogenesis. Further understanding of the disease should contribute to decreasing misdiagnosis and making precise decisions.

Congenital glycosylation disorder type Ⅱm caused by SLC35A2 mutations: a report of 3 cases and literature review / 中华神经科杂志

Objective:To summarize the clinical manifestations, gene variations, diagnosis and treatment of 3 cases with SLC35A2 variations characterized by congenital glycosylation disorder Ⅱm (CDG Ⅱm). Methods:A total of 3 patients admitted to the Department of Pediatrics of Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China from 2018 to 2020 were examined in detail. The studies till January 2022 were searched with key words of "congenital disorders of glycosylation Ⅱm", " SLC35A2" and "CDG Ⅱm" in both English and Chinese in the databases of China National Knowledge Infrast Ructure (CNKI), Wanfang, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man and PubMed, and the clinical manifestations, genetic variation, treatments and prognosis of patients with SLC35A2 mutation were summarized. Results:The patients all presented with intractable infantile spasm and global developmental delay, onset in infancy. A variety of antiepileptic treatments had temporary and partial efficacy. Otherwise, proband 2 and 3 presented with abnormal glutamic-pyruvic transaminase and increased platelets. Funduscopy showed dysplasia of the retinal pigment epithelium in both eyes, and they both received D-galactose treatment. A total of 22 relevant case reports, including 99 patients, were collected. The 99 patients all were heterozygous mutations, and a total of 75 different variation sites were reported. The clinical manifestations were characterized by global developmental delay or mental retardation ( n=89), epileptic seizure ( n=75), hypotonia ( n=57), facial deformity ( n=57), skeletal abnormality ( n=50), visual impairment ( n=42), elevated glutamic-pyruvic transaminase ( n=31), gastrointestinal symptoms ( n=28), skin deformity ( n=26), microcephaly ( n=23) and congenital heart disease ( n=12). Craniocerebral magnetic resonance imaging may be normal in the early stage. With age, magnetic resonance imaging may show abnormal white matter signals, brain atrophy, dysplasia of corpus callosum, delayed myelination, enlargement of lateral ventricle, brain stem atrophy and so on. Studies have shown that galactose treatment may be effective. Conclusions:SLC35A2 variants lead to CDG Ⅱm, whose clinical manifestations mainly include epileptic encephalopathy and global developmental delay. Multiple antiepileptic therapies can temporarily or partially control seizures, while oral galactose may improve the clinical symptoms, showing its prospect as a dietary therapy.

West Syndrome: Report of Clinical Case: 9 Years of Follow-up / Síndrome de West: Relato de Caso: 9 anos de Acompanhamento

ABSTRACT West Syndrome is one of the rare and severe childhood epilepsies, starting in the first year of life and having an uncertain etiology. Even if some of the symptoms are missing, a triad of them defines West Syndrome, including epileptic spasms, arrest or regression of psychomotor development, and hypsarrhythmia on interictal electroencephalography. The objective of this study was to obtain updated data on West Syndrome literature and report a clinical case of a patient with the medical diagnosis of this syndrome, with gastrostomy feed tube, and clinical pattern of spastic quadriplegia. Initial clinical examination showed prolonged retention of deciduous teeth, periodontal disease, poor oral hygiene, mouth breathing, deep palate, anterior open bite, tongue interposition between the dental arches, and low caries experience. Over 9 years the patient presented complications in their sistemicas conditions, with need for gastrostomy and many periods of hospitalization that determined periods of absence for the dental monitoring. Despite this, currently his oral health condition is good and stable. Dental care for people with disabilities should be developed, encouraged and continuously extended, in agreement with the constitutional principles of human dignity and the rights for health and equality.

RESUMO A Síndrome de West é uma rara e severa forma de epilepsia da infância, com início no primeiro ano de vida e etiologia ainda não definida. Mesmo com a ausência de alguns sintomas, a tríade que define a Síndrome de West é a presença de espasmos, retardo no desenvolvimento psicomotor e a presença da hypssarritmia no eletroencefalograma. O objetivo deste estudo foi a obtenção de dados atualizados na literatura sobre a Síndrome de West e relatar um caso clínico de um paciente com diagnóstico médico dessa síndrome, com gastrostomia e padrão clínico de quadriplegia espástica. No exame clínico inicial observou-se retenção prolongada de dentes decíduos, doença periodontal, padrão pobre de higiene bucal, respiração bucal, palato profundo, mordida aberta anterior, interposição de língua entre os arcos dentais e baixa experiência de cárie. Ao longo de 9 anos o paciente apresentou complicações nas suas condições sistêmicas, com necessidade e realizar gastrostomia e com muitos períodos de internação. Apesar disto, atualmente sua condição de saúde bucal é boa e estável. Os cuidados odontológicos para pessoas com deficiência devem ser desenvolvidos, encorajados e estendidos continuamente, de acordo com os princípios constitucionais da dignidade humana e os direitos de saúde e de igualdade.

Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment of PEHO syndrome / 中国医师杂志

The progressive encephalopathy with edema,hypsarrhythmia,and optic atrophy (PEHO) syndrome is a unique pediatric neurodevelopmental disorder,characterized by a combination of severe mental retardation,early onset epileptic seizures,pedal edema,optic/cerebellar atrophy,and early death.The affected individuals have neither optic atrophy nor the typical neuroradiological findings has been described as PEHO-like syndrome.At present,there are few reports about PEHO syndrome in China.In this study,we summarizes the incidence,etiology,clinical manifestations,and related genes of PEHO syndrome,and aims to provide assistance for future clinical work.

Efficacy observation of high dose oral methylprednisolone in the treatment of infantile spasms / 中国医师杂志

Objective To investigate the clinical efficacy and safety of oral high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of infantile spasms (IS).Methods The clinical data of 38 children with infantile spasms were analyzed retrospectively who treated with oral administration of high-dose methylprednisone in Department of Neurology,Wuhan Children's Hospital,Tongji Medical College,Huazhong University of Science and Technology from January 2016 to April 2017.Results (1) Twenty patients (52.6％) of all the 38 patients were seizure-free after 2 weeks of treatment,and 16 cases (42.1％) were seizure-free at the end of treatment.(2) All the 38 cases were typical or atypical hyperarrhythmia.After treatment of 2 weeks,25 cases (65.8％) of hyperarrhythmia disappeared;at the end of the treatment,30 cases (78.9％) of hyperarrhythmia disappeared.(3) Adverse effects mainly were weight gain,Cushing signs,increased appetite,irritability,drowsiness,co-infection,electrolyte disturbance.(4) Follow-up of 3 to 12 months,the recurrence rate was low and the development quotient had improved.Conclusions Oral high dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of IS is effective,safe and has a low recurrence rate.It can be recommended in clinicalal application.

West syndrome: etiology and evolution of the inter-ictal eeg pattern in a cohort of 24 patients / Síndrome de West: etiologia e evolução de padrão interictal no eeg em uma coorte de 24 pacientes / Síndrome de West: etiología y evolución de estándar interictal en el eeg en una cohorte de 24 pacientes

Objective: West syndrome (WS) is the most frequent epileptic encephalopathy in the first year of life. Diagnosis requires the presence of epileptic spasms, developmental delay, and hypsarrhythmia EEG pattern. Methods: A retrospective study on the etiology and evolution of inter-ictal electroencephalographic patterns in children with West syndrome referred to the Department of Pedia- tric Neurology at the Pequeno Príncipe Children's Hospital from January 2008 to January 2014. All children underwent magnetic resonance imaging and EEG. Results: Eighteen (75%) children had spasms, and 6 (25%) had spasms and tonic seizures. MRI scans showed agenesis of the corpus callosum (1/4.17%), dysplasia in the right frontal lobe (1/4.17%), dysplasia in the left frontal and parietal lobes (1/4.17%), pachygyria associated with agenesis of the corpus callosum (1/4.17%), periventricular nodes (2/8.33%), periventricular leukomalacia (3/12.5%), cerebral atrophy (3/12.5%), and multicystic encephalomalacia (6/25%). EEG monitoring showed hypsarrhythmia in the first exam in all cases; 18 (75%) progressed to multifocal epileptiform discharges (more than three independent epileptogenic foci), and 6 (25%) developed generalized spike-wave and polyspike-wave. Conclusions: Symptomatic form is the most common in WS and most patients develop multifocal epileptiform discharges visible in EEG.

Objetivo: A síndrome de West (SW) é a encefalopatia epiléptica mais frequente no primeiro ano de vida. O diagnóstico requer a presença de espasmos epilépticos, retardo de desenvolvimento e EEG com padrão de hipsarritmia. Métodos: Estudo retrospectivo sobre a etiologia e a evolução dos padrões eletroencefalográficos interictais em crianças com síndrome de West encaminhadas para o Departamento de Neurologia Pediátrica do Hospital Pequeno Príncipe, de janeiro de 2008 a janeiro de 2014. Todas as crianças foram submetidas a exames de ressonância magnética e EEG. Resultados: Dezoito crianças (75%) tinham espasmos e 6 (25%) tinham espasmos e convulsões tônicas. As imagens por RM mostraram agenesia do corpo caloso (1/4,17%), displasia no lobo frontal direito (1/4,17%), displasia nos lobos frontal esquerdo e parietal (1/4,17%), paquigiria associada à agenesia do corpo caloso (1/4,17%), nódulos periventriculares (2/8,33%), leucomalácia periventricular (3/12,5%), atrofia cerebral (3/12,5%) e encefalomalácia multicística (6/25%). A monitoração EEG mostrou hipsarritmia no primeiro exame em todos os casos; 18 (75%) progrediram para descargas epileptiformes multifocais (mais de três focos epileptogênicos independentes) e 6 (25%) evoluíram com espícula-onda e poliespícula-onda generalizadas. Conclusões: A forma sintomática é a mais comum na SW e a maioria dos pacientes desenvolve descargas epileptiformes multifocais aparentes no EEG.

Objetivo: El síndrome de West (SW) es la encefalopatía epiléptica más frecuente en el primer año de vida. El diagnóstico requiere la presencia de espasmos epilépticos, retardo de desarrollo y EEG con estándar de hipsarritmia. Métodos: Estudio retrospectivo sobre la etiología y la evolución de los estándares electroencefalográficos interictales en niños con síndrome de West encaminados para el Departamento de Neurología Pediátrica del Hospital Infantil Pequeno Príncipe, desde enero de 2008 a enero de 2014. Todos los niños fueron sometidos a exámenes de resonancia magnética y EEG. Resultados: Dieciocho niños (75%) tenían espasmos y 6 (25%) tenían espasmos y convulsiones tónicas. Las imágenes por RM mostraron agenesia del cuerpo calloso (1/4,17%), displasia en el lóbulo frontal derecho (1/4,17%), displasia en los lóbulos frontal izquierdo y parietal (1/4,17%), paquigiria asociada a la agenesia del cuerpo calloso (1/4,17%), nódulos periventriculares (2/8,33%), leucomalacia periventricular (3/12,5%), atrofia cerebral (3/12,5%) y encefalomalacia multicística (6/25%). El monitoreo EEG mostró hipsarritmia en el primer examen en todos los casos; 18 (75%) avanzaron para descargas epileptiformes multifocales (más de tres focos epileptogénicos independientes) y 6 (25%) evolucionaron con espícula-onda y poliespícula-onda generalizadas. Conclusiones: La forma sintomática es la más común en la SW y la mayoría de los pacientes desarrolla descargas epileptiformes multifocales aparentes en el EEG.

Effect of bilateral adrenalectomy on the susceptibility to NMDA-induced seizure and hippocampal CRH mRNA in young rats / 实用医学杂志

Objective To demonstrate the effect of bilateral adrenalectomy (ADX) on the susceptibility to NMDA-induced seizure and hippocampal CRH mRNA in young rats. Methods 60 Wistar rats at P10 were divided into control group, ADX group and Sham-ADX group. In the next day after operation, 7 mg/kg NMDA was injected to induce seizure, and incubation period (in minutes) as well as degree was evaluated. In situ hybridization was used to detect hippocampal CRH mRNA expression. Results Latency was (43.65 ± 2.96) minutes in control group, (35.05 ± 2.35)minutes in ADX group and (42.60 ± 1.90)minutes in Sham-ADX group. Latency in the ADX rats increased significantly (F = 73.73, P < 0.05). The seizure scale was (4.40 ± 0.60) in control group, (5.56 ± 0.76) in ADX group and (4.55 ± 0.76) in Sham-ADX group. The severity of seizures in ADX group increased significantly compared with the control and Sham-ADX groups (F = 15.52, P <0.05). CRH mRNA expression was 20% in control group, 55% in ADX group and 15% in Sham-ADX group. CRH mRNA in the ADX group was significantly elevated (χ2 = 9.048, P < 0.05). Conclusion Adrenalectomy exacerbates NMDA-induced spasm seizures in young rats , which might be related to CRH mRNA expression in the hippocampus.

Advance in the ACTH therapeutic mechanisms of infantile spasms / 国际儿科学杂志

Infantile spasms is a severe and refractory epileptic encephalopathy that occurs in infancy and early childhood.Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) has been the major therapy for infantile spasms.However,the ACTH therapeutic mechanisms of infantile spasms still lack relatively reasonal explaination.Recent researches has been found that ACTH might produce its herapeutic effect by suppression of excessive secretion and releasing of corticotrophin releasing hormone,modulation of production and releasing of neurosteroids,neurotrophins,and other putative pathways.

Incontinentia pigmenti: presentación neonatal: a propósito de un caso clínico / Incontinentia pigmenti: neonatal presentation: a purpose of clinical case

La incontinentia pigmenti (IP) también conocida como síndrome de Bloch-Sulzberger, es una genodermatosis infrecuente ligada al cromosoma X que afecta tejidos derivados del neuroectodermo: piel, faneras, ojos, sistema nervioso central y dientes. En la etapa neonatal se plantean diagnósticos diferenciales como el impétigo ampollar, herpes neonatal, citomegalovirus, mastocitosis, epidermólisis ampollar hereditaria. El diagnóstico temprano permite detectar las posibles patologías asociadas, que son determinantes para el pronóstico del paciente.

Incontinentia pigmenti, also known as Bloch-Sulzberger syndrome, is a rare congenital X-linked genodermatosis with variable involvement of tissues derived from neuroectoderm and mesoderm skin, hair, nails, eyes and central nervous system. Differential diagnoses are manifested in the neonatal period, such as bullous impetigo, neonatal herpes, cytomegalovirus, mastocytosis and hereditary epidermolysis bullosa. Early diagnosis allows detection of associated diseases which determine the patients prognosis.

A Case of Infantile Alexander Disease Accompanied by Infantile Spasms Diagnosed by DNA Analysis

Alexander disease (AD) is a rare leukodystrophy of the central nervous system of unknown etiology. AD is characterized by progressive failure of central myelination and the accumulation of Rosenthal fibers in astrocytes, and is inevitably lethal in nature. Symptomatically, AD is associated with leukoencephalopathy with macrocephaly, seizures, and psychomotor retardation in infants, and usually leads to death within the first decade. Its characteristic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings have been described as demyelination predominantly in the frontal lobe. Moreover, dominant mutations in the GFAP gene, coding for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a principal astrocytic intermediate filament protein, have been shown to lead to AD. The disease can now be detected by genetic diagnosis. We report the Korean case of an 8-month-old male patient with AD. He was clinically characterized due to the presence of psychomotor retardation, megalencephaly, spasticity, and recurrent seizures including infantile spasms which is a remarkable presentation. Demyelination in the frontal lobe and in a portion of the temporal lobe was demonstrated by brain MRI. Moreover, DNA analysis of peripheral blood showed the presence of a R239L mutation in the GFAP gene, involving the replacement of guanine with thymine.

Síndrome de west. Aspectos clínicos, causas y terapéuticas / West síndrome. Clinical, etiological and therapeutical aspects

Con el objetivo de conocer el comportamiento clínico, etiológico y terapéutico se realizó estudio descriptivo y transversal a los pacientes ingresados con el diagnóstico de Síndrome de West (SW) en el hospital pediátrico docente de Camagüey, durante el período de julio 1985 a julio 1999. Se observó ligero predominio del sexo masculino, la edad de aparición de máxima incidencia entre cuatro y seis meses. El West sintomático y la causa perinatal la más frecuente, así como la crisis de extensión. Existió mayor afectación del desarrollo psicomotor en el West sintomático. La hormona adrenocorticotrópica asociada a la benzodiazepina y valproato de sodio resultó la terapéutica más efectiva.

With the aim of knowing the clinical, etiological and terapeutical behavior, a descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in admitted patients with diagnosis of Wets Syndrome (WS) in the Pediatric Hospital of Camagüey from July 1985 to july 1999. A sligth prevalence of masculine sex was observed; the apparition age of maximun incidence was among 4 to 6 months. Symptomatic West and prenatal cause were the most frequent as well as the extension crisis. There was greater affection of the psychomotor development (SMD) in the Sympthomatic West ACTH associated to Benzodiazepina and Sodium Valproato resulted in the most effective therapeutic.