O caos, o acaso e o trágico / The chaos, the hazard and the tragic

O trabalho discute a concepção de caos, de acaso e de trágico desde a Antiguidade Grega, passando pela filosofia trágica, até chegar à psicanálise.

This paper considers the concept of chaos, hazard and tragic, from the Ancient Greece, passing through the tragic philosophy, finally coming to psychoanalysis.

Alma, corpo e a antiga civilização grega: as primeiras observações do funcionamento cerebral e das atividades mentais / Soul, body and the ancient greek civilization: the first observations of brain functioning and mental activities

Muitos dos conceitos existentes na neurociência moderna possuem suas origens nas especulações elaboradas pelos antigos filósofos e médicos gregos. Questões centrais sobre a fonte dos pensamentos humanos, o mecanismo da atividade cognitiva, e a natureza das emoções, percepção e movimento voluntário, por exemplo, foram levantadas pelos pensadores gregos. É a partir desta civilização que surgem as observações mais sistemáticas sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do corpo, da mente e a relação entre estas duas entidades. Assim, o presente trabalho pretende observar as principais tentativas iniciais gregas em vincular estruturas do corpo (tais como o cérebro ou o coração) e atividades mentais, ao longo das diversas especulações gregas sobre a natureza, a filosofia, a psicologia e a medicina.

Many of the existing concepts in modern neuroscience have their origins in the speculations made by ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Core questions about the source of human thought, the mechanism of cognitive activity as well as the nature of emotions, perceptions and voluntary movements, for example, were raised by Greek thinkers. It is from this civilization that arise more systematic observations on the structure and functioning of body, mind and relationship between these two entities. The present paper intends to adhere to the first Greek attempts to link structures of the body (such as the brain or the heart) and mental activities regarding various Greek speculations about the nature, philosophy, psychology and medicine.

Da importância da tragédia: o gênero dramático e a finitude humana / La importancia de la tragédia: el género dramático y la finitud humana / On the importance of tragedy: the genre dramatic and human finity

O caráter deste estudo teórico é realizar uma reflexão acerca da experienciação dos antigos helenos em relação às grandes Tragédias. Mostrar-se-á a Tragédia em suas dimensões como forma de poesia e de celebração, além de ser fonte perene de meditação do “sentido do trágico” da finitude humana...

The character of this theoretical study is to realize a reflection concerning the experiencing of the old greeks in relation to the great Tragedies. To show Tragedy in its dimensions to it as form of poetry and celebration, beyond being perennial source of meditation of the “sense of tragic” of the finity the human being...

La calidad de este estudio teórico es lograr un reflexion con respecto a el experienciacion de los viejos Hellenos en relación con las fenomenales Tragedias. La Tragedia será mostrada en sus dimensiones como forma de poesía y de la celebración, además de ser la eterna fuente de la meditación del “sentido del trágico” de la finitud humana...

Comparative Research into the Process of Forming the Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine and that of Four Trigrams Constitution in Korean Medicine and Contents of Two Theories of Constitution / 의사학

After conducting comparative research into the process of forming the Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine and that of Four Trigrams Constitution(Sasang Constitution) in Korean Medicine and contents of two Theories of Constitution in terms of medical history, both theories were found to be formed by an interaction between philosophy and medicine, followed by a combination of the two, on a philosophical basis. The Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine began with the Theory of Four Elements presented by Empedocles, followed by the Theory of Four Humors presented by Hippocrates and the Theory of Four Temperaments by Galenos, forming and developing the Theory of Constitution. After the Middle Ages, there was no significant advance in the Theory of Constitution by modern times ; however, it developed into the theory of constitution type of Kretschmer and others after the 19th century and into the scientific theory of constitution based on genetics presented by Garrod and others early in the 20th century. The Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution began with the Theory of Constitution in Huangdi Neijing, followed by developments and influences of existing medicine called beginning, restoration, and revival periods and DongeuisoosebowonSaSangChoBonGwon based on the original philosophy of Four Trigrams presented by Lee Je-ma, which is found in GyeokChiGo, DongMuYuGo and so on, ultimately forming and developing into the Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution in Dongeuisoosebowon. Recently, a lot of research is being conducted into making it objective in order to achieve reproducibility in diagnosis and so forth of Four Trigrams Constitution.

Heat and Fever in Ancient Greek Physiology / 의사학

This paper aims at clarifying the relationship of physiological heat and pathological heat(fever) using the theoretical scheme of Georges Canguilhem as is argued in his famous book The Normal and the Pathologic. Ancient authors had presented various views on the innate heat and pathological heat. Some argued that there is only pathological heat while others, like Galen, distinguished two different kinds of heat. Galen was the first medial author who had the clear notion of the relationship between the normal heat and the pathological heat. He conceptualized their difference as the heat conforming to nature (kata phusin) and the heat against nature (para phusin). However, the Peripatetic authors, such as ps-Alexander Aphrodisias, who laid more emphasis on physiology tended to regard pathology in continuation with physiology as Claude Bernard attempted to do it. Therefore, Canguilhem's theoretical scheme turns out to be very useful in analysing the relationship of normal heat and pathological heat as is manifested in ancient Greek physiology.

The Contradictive Tendencies in Medical Treatment of the Hellenistic Age: Diversity versus Simplification, Chronic Extension(Physical Therapy) versus Rapidity, Humane Medicine versus Worldly Success / 의사학

It is a one-sided view to find the greatness of Hippocrates just in seeking after scientific medicine(medicina scientia) and sublating superstitious treatment. The scientific medicine did not begin with him, and the succeeding generations of him were not one and the same in opinions. For example, there were the confrontations between the school of Kos and that of Knidos in the very age of Hippocrates, as well as the opposition of rationalism and empiricism. The school of Kos was alleged to succeed the tradition of Hippocrates, taking into consideration individual physical conditions and being based on the principle of various clinical methods of physical therapy assuming chronical extension. On the contrary, the school of Knidos tended to define the diseases in simple aspects, paying no much attention to the difference of physical conditions and developmental stages of illness. Futhermore, the latter grasped the diseases rather in the point of individual organs than the disorder of physical state of the body. It can be said that the anatomical knowledge was more useful for the school of Knidos. The difference between the two schools can also be found in what purpose the medicine sought after. While Hippocrates attached much importance to physical therapy and made the people including the poor as object of medical treatment. there were doctors in no small number, we can suppose, in pursuit of money, power, worldly glory. As time passed, however, the two schools gradually got similar to each other, the difference of them reduced as well as the tradition of Hippocrates faded. The opposition between rationalism and empiricism in the Hellenistic Age shared, in some aspect, the difference of Kos and Knidos. According to Celsus, the conflict between rationalism and empiricism did not refer to pharmacy or anatomy, but just to diet. The rationalism materialized various methods of therapy considering environmental elements as well as individual physical conditions, but the empiricism in reality tended to expedite simplification of treatment. This tendency of simplification of the latter corresponded to the contemporary need of society, that is, speedy and effective treatment for the wounded in war or for epidemic in the army, farms of collective labour or much crowded cities. The bigger the groups were, the more the methods of treatment got simplified, individual conditions not much accounted. Then, the empiricism came to be united with anatomy, as the anatomy, being much developed in the process of curing the wounded in war, goes with simplification of medical treatment in the hospital of large scale. It can be said that the origin of simplified definition of diseases goes back far to the school of Knidos. On the other hand, in Hippocrates the drugs were in contrast to the diet. While the diet was to help health and rehabilitate physical conditions, the drugs were to result in strong effects of change. The drugs like as poison, eye-salve, ointment were to be made use f for rapid, effective change of physical state or for the treatment of a concrete, limited part of the body, These drugs were also much developed in the Hellenistic Age of the state of chronic war. In initial stages, the toxical drugs as well as the anatomy and surgical operations must have been developed on peaceful purpose, such like as 'theriaca' detoxicating(antidoting) animal's poison, or for easing childbirth. With the increasement of social inequality and unexhausted human desire, however, the toxical drugs or anatomical knowledges got to be used for undesirable purposes. Thus, we can not estimate Hippocrates simply in the point whether he developed scientific medicine or not. The great fame of Hippocrates could be found rather in his method of medical treatment as well as the principle of medicine, as he believed that the medicine should not be exploited for worldly power or wealth but for the convenience of all the people. He pursued healthy life matching to natural state(physis) and took much account of different physical states of individual to embody various methods of treatment, which presupposed chronic delay. The opposite to the Hippocratic medicine is called for the wounded by war, or the collective labourer of large farm with intensive labour exploitation. The medical treatment for them assumed anatomical surgery and drugs of rapid, strong effect.

The Concept of Disease in Galen / 의사학

Galen was with no doubt a great authority in ancient medicine rivalled only with "the father of medicine" Hippocrates His medicine inherited not only Hippocratic tradition which is characterized by dynamic pathology but also Alexandrian medicine which made a great contribution to anatomy He did not generalize all the pathological phenomena according to one dogmatic theory His medicine was open to all kinds of medicine but he was quite selective in receiving different medical traditions Galen defined disease as impairment of bodily activities Whatever that impairs the bodily activities is the cause of disease Galen's pathology is built upon two heterogeneous medical traditions 1) Dynamic pathology of the Hippocratic medicine but which ignored anatomy 2) Anatomical pathology of Alexandrian medicine Galen integrated these two different traditions by his concept of disease His definition of disease impairment of bodily activities made it possible to harmonize these two different traditions otherwise which would have been conflictual It is Galen's great contribution to Western medicine to have laid a foundation of pathology by combining physiological and anatomical point of view.

Corpus Hippocraticum 'on the sacred disease'.

The Hippocratic Corpus was attributed to all branches of healing including internal medicine, surgery, and obstetrics. The Hippocratic collection of treatises (or corpus) was mostly written between 430 and 330 B.C. and some are later works. Some 600 years after Hippocrates, the Corpus were further systematized by Galen and later still by the Persian Islamic physician Avicenna and others. The Corpus provides an insight into the origin and development of rational medicine in the west.

The role of Galen in the development and progress of medical sciences.

Early Roman medicine was a mixture of religion and witchcraft, but as time went by, it became more influenced by the Greek medical sciences, which were more developed. The most famous Greek physician during the Roman period was Galen (129-200 AD). In the 4th century A. D. The Byzantine physicians of the Emperor Julian, made the Galenic writings available to ordinary practitioners, and so Greek medicine spread throughout Syria and was carried by the Nestorians into Persia, where it became available to the Islamic World.

The relation between Greek and Islamic materia medica.

Many studies have been made on the exact data of the introduction of Greek sciences to the Arabic culture. During the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. a big progress was done in the Arab-Islamic sciences, when the Caliphs of the Omayad and Abbasid dynasties invited many scientists, researchers and translators for translation of all sciences into Arabic. The Arabs paid special attention to the Greek natural sciences such as botany and pharmacy. Greek materia medica was a major common basis for Arab-Islamic medicine and pharmacy which in turn paved the way to the modern pharmaceutical therapy.

Galen's use of Aristotle.

The thought of Aristotle has stamped itself on the whole subsequent course of Natural philosophy including the philosophy of healing art since the 4th century B. C. He is known to be the great codifier of ancient Natural philosophy. He developed coherent theories of generation and functional morphology of animals and heredity in his treaties. Aristotle dissected about 70 species of animals and founded the basis of comparative Anatomy.

Biología, enfermedad y salud mental: salud mental y diaita (la dieta griega) / Biology, disease and mental health: mental health and diaita (the greek diet)

La revisión de los conceptos de salud y enfermedad en la Grecia Clásica permite establecer la importancia que tiene para el cultivo de la salud el concepto de diaita (dieta), la que por cierto es mucho más que un régimen alimenticio. Las distintas dietas empleadas por los griegos derivaban de determinados conocimientos que se expresaban en normas, en nomoi. Ahora bien, si los nomoi y la dieta estaban de acuerdo con la ley divina, el hombre no solo podía mantener su salud, sino también desarrollar todas su potencialidades. Pero la dieta no sólo tenía que ver con la salud del cuerpo, sino también con la del alma, dada su estrecha relación con la educación o paideia. Según Hipócrates, cualquier ciudadano podía alcanzar la areté, la virtud, a través de la prácticade la dieta adecuada, algo que en la Grecia arcaica estaba reservado sólo a los aristocratas. La dieta consistía en el respeto a los ritmos biológicos fundamentales, en una vida en armonia con la naturaleza y con los dioses y en la búsqueda de la proporción entre trabajo y descanso, actividad física y espiritual, preocupación por sí mismo y por el otro, etc. Llama la atención el hecho que en la sociedad tecnológico-industrial, junto con el alejamiento del hombre respecto a la naturaleza y a sus ritmos, se haya producido un aumento impresionante de dos patólogias: la enfermedad coronaria y la depresión mayor, puesto que ambas enfermedades aparecen vinculadas a personalidades típicas, el Tipo A y el Typus Melancholicus, respectivamente, y éstas representan distintas formas de exageración de la ideología imperante, con la sobrevaloración del rendimiento, la competitividad y el abandono progresivo de todo vínculo con la dimensión trascendente, vale decir, dos formas diferentes de malograr la diatia, que los griegos tan tempranamente reconocieran como una condición sine qua non de la verdadera salud