Pertinencia del término humor en terminologia anatomica / Relevance of the term humor in terminologia anatomica

En el periodo del renacimiento se dieron múltiples traducciones del griego al latín. Los traductores latinos que llevaron a cabo dichas traducciones en diferentes ocasiones no captaron la semántica base de las palabras, lo cual condujo a errores o desviaciones en el significado de las mismas. Lo anterior, sentó un precedente para debatir la pertinencia de algunos términos anatómicos latinos vigentes en Terminologia Anatomica, como es el caso del humor acuoso y el humor vítreo. En este sentido, el objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar la etimología del término humor con el fin de evaluar la coherencia entre su relación léxica y morfológica. La palabra latinizada umor deriva del griego χնµóς, que fue empleado en la Antigua Grecia por los médicos Hipócrates y Galeno para hacer referencia de manera específica a los cuatro humores de los cuales se encontraba compuesto el ser humano (sangre, bilis amarilla, bilis negra y flema) en relación con la salud, la enfermedad y el temperamento. Sin embargo, posterior a la traducción, esta palabra paso a denotar a cada uno de los líquidos de un organismo vivo, entre otros significados. Por lo tanto, se concluyó que al llevar a cabo la traducción del término en cuestión no se estimó el significado por el cual el mismo se originó y éste se generalizó de manera errónea. Esto, a su vez genera que no se correlacione la etimología del término con su significado léxico y respectiva relación morfológica.

SUMMARY: During the Renaissance era there were multiple translations from Greek into Latin. The Latin translators who carried out these translations often times did not grasp the basic semantics of words, which in turn led to errors or variations of their meaning. This set a precedent to discuss the relevance of some current Latin anatomical terms in Terminologia Anatomica, such as the aqueous humor and the vitreous humor. In this sense, the objective of this study was to analyze the etymology of the term humor in order to evaluate the coherence between its lexical and morphological relationship. The Latinized word umor derives from the Greek χնµóς, which was used in Ancient Greece by the physicians Hippocrates and Galen, to refer specifically to the four humors of which a human being was composed (blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm) in relation to health, disease and temperament. Following the translation however, and among other meanings, the term was used to indicate each one of the fluids in a living organism. Thus, it was concluded that when executing the translation of the term in question, its original meaning was not considered, and therefore it was inaccurately generalized. This, in turn, resulted in the etymology of the term not being correlated with its lexical meaning and respective morphological relationship.

Los textos hipocráticos y su vigencia: elementos para la formación humanística del médico en el siglo XXI / Hippocratic Writings and their Relevance: Elements for the Humanistic Education of Doctors in the 21st Century / Os textos hipocráticos e sua validade: elementos para a formação humanística do médico no século XXI

Resumen Se presentan comentarios, a modo de apostillas, sobre la actualidad de algunos textos hipocráticos desde la perspectiva del aprendizaje y la práctica del quehacer médico en las primeras décadas del siglo XXI, en plena expansión de una civilización técnico-científica e informática. Se destaca la afirmación de verdades perennes -con valor para todos los tiempos- extractadas de una selección de los escritos hipocráticos, los cuales expresan el espíritu de la medicina clásica griega entendida como tekhne iatrike, concebida originalmente como una actividad de carácter racional, humana, filantrópica y científica, dirigida al servicio del bien de los pacientes, con la puesta en marcha de un ethos, unos principios y valores éticos de rango, validez y aplicación universales. Se propone que la asimilación de estos conceptos añade calidad humana, dignidad, crecimiento moral e intelectual al estudiante de medicina, así como mejoramiento de sus actitudes y aptitudes, habilidades y destrezas, para la comprensión y el enfrentamiento de las múltiples situaciones existenciales que impregnan la práctica clínica diaria, la cual no solo exige competencias técnicas profesionales, sino también cualidades humanísticas para un mejor enfoque de las relaciones interpersonales y las actitudes ante el paciente y sus familiares. Estas ideas se presentan como un aporte de la bioética, caracterizada por su tarea de integración de humanidades-ciencia-tecnología y su misión educativa en la formación de conciencias críticas en la civilización tecno-científica, a fin de fomentar una actitud de respeto y apertura ante los diferentes aspectos de la realidad.

Abstract By way of notes, comments are made on the validity of some Hippocratic works from the perspective of the learning and practice of medicine in the first decades of the 21st century, amidst a expanding technical-scientific and computer civilization. The paper highlights the affirmation of perennial truths -valid at all times- extracted from a selection of Hippocratic writings, which express the spirit of classic Greek medicine understood as tekhne iatrike. It was originally conceived as an activity of a rational, human, philanthropic and scientific nature aimed at serving the good of patients, following an ethos and some ethical principles and values of universal range, validity and application. It is proposed that taking in these concepts provides the medicine student with humanity, dignity, moral and intellectual growth, and improves their attitudes and aptitudes, skills and abilities to understand and face multiple existential situations that permeate daily clinical practice. This not only requires professional technical skills, but also humane attributes for better approaching interpersonal relationships with and attitudes towards the patient and their families. These ideas are introduced as a contribution of bioethics, characterized by its humanities-science-technology integration and educational mission of training critical consciences within the techno-scientific civilization, in order to foster respect for and openness towards diverse aspects of reality.

Resumo São apresentados comentários com objetivos didáticos sobre a atualidade de alguns textos hipocráticos sob a perspectiva da aprendizagem e da prática do fazer médico nas primeiras décadas do século XXI, em plena expansão de uma civilização técnico-científica e informática. Destaca-se a afirmação de verdades perenes extraídas de uma seleção dos textos hipocráticos, os quais expressam o espírito da medicina clássica grega entendida como tekhne iatrike, concebida, originalmente, como atividade de caráter racional, humana, filantrópica e científica, dirigida ao serviço do bem dos pacientes, com a instauração de um ethos, de princípios e valores éticos de rango, validade e aplicação universais. Propõe-se que a assimilação desses conceitos agregue qualidade humana, dignidade, crescimento moral e intelectual ao estudante de Medicina, bem como melhore suas atitudes e aptidões, habilidades e destrezas, para compreender e enfrentar as múltiplas situações existenciais presentes na prática clínica diária, a qual não só exige competências técnicas profissionais, mas também qualidades humanas para uma melhor abordagem das relações interpessoais e melhores atitudes para com o paciente e seus familiares. Essas ideias são apresentadas como uma contribuição da Bioética, caracterizada por sua tarefa de integração de ciências humanas-ciência-tecnologia e sua missão educativa na formação de consciências críticas na civilização técnico-científica, a fim de fomentar uma atitude de respeito e abertura ante os diferentes aspectos da realidade.

Salud y Enfermedad Mental: Del Corpus Hippocraticum a una aproximación termodinámica / Health and Mental Illness: From Corpus Hippocraticum to a thermodynamic approach

Se establece una relación entre conceptos básicos acerca de salud y enfermedad mental en los Tratados Hipocráticos y los elementos actuales de la termodinámica y de la cibernética, enlace que se formula a través de los aportes de autores como Maturana y Valera (autopoiesis y teleonomía) o Bergson (regularidades vs indeterminsmos). Se definen y caracterizan los fenómenos anancásticos y los estocásticos, destacándose su relación complementaria. Con un enfoque termodinámico se define a la enfermedad mental como una estructura que se impone hegemónicamente sobre el resto de las actividades mentales y consume la energía que regula el metabolismo restante de la persona afectada. Se aportan evidencias clínicas de las bondades de esta óptica, presentándose, por ejemplo, la ansiedad como una crisis entrópica y la depresión como interferencia de la teleonomía , al tiempo que los trastornos obsesivo-compulsivos son descritos desde una perspectiva cibernética. A lo largo del texto se le confiere mayor relevancia a la noción de la enfermedad mental como pathos hegemónico que absorbe recursos energéticos y disminuye las posibilidades de adaptación del afectado a su medio externo y de éxito en el afrontamiento de sus propias tensiones.

A link is traced between the basic concepts on health and mental illness in the Hippocratic Treaties and the current elements of thermodynamics and cybernetics, through the contributions of authors such as Maturana and Valera (autopoiesis and teleonomy) or Bergson (regularities vs. indeterminism). Anankastic and stochastic phenomena are defined and characterized, highlighting their complementary connection. Following a thermodynamic approach, a mental illness is defined as a structure that imposes itself on the rest of the mental activities and consumes the energy that regulates the remnants of the affected person s metabolism. Clinical evidences of the benefits of this perspective are given, presenting, for instance, anxiety as entropic crisis and depression as an interference of teleonomy , while obsessive-compulsive disorders are described from the cybernetic perspective. Throughout the text, the greatest relevance is conferred to the notion of mental illness as a hegemonic pathos that absorbs energy resources and diminishes the affected individuals possibilities of adaptation to their external environment, and of successfully coping with their own tensions.

“I will not cut, even for the stone”: origins of urology in the hippocratic collection

The Hippocratic Collection, including the most of ancient Greek medicine, remains still interesting, despite the recent advances that transformed definitely the urological healing methods. Considering the patient as a unique psycho-somatic entity and avoiding high risk surgical manipulations were the leading principles dictating the everyday practice. Contemporary physicians can still learn from the clinical observations in times of complete absence of laboratory or imaging aid, from the prognostic thoughts, the ethics, and the philosophical concepts, represented by the Hippocratic writings, tracing into them the roots of Rational Medicine in general and Urology in particular.

Valores éticos en la práctica estomatológica. Compromiso desde la atención primaria / Ethic values in the stomatologic practice. Commitment from the primary care

Durante siglos, la práctica odontológica, lleva a cabo sus actividades desde la perspectiva ética de la medicina hipocrática realizando una práctica curativa de tipo paternalista. En la actualidad, la comprensión de la Bioética en la esfera de la Estomatología y la configuración del escenario, para orientar el análisis de los efectos que pueden provocar las acciones u omisiones del odontólogo en la salud del paciente, constituyen componentes dentro del ámbito de la responsabilidad profesional. Por estas razones, es imprescindible, que los estomatólogos generales integrales conozcan los principios éticos, así como, las responsabilidades de su profesión, con el objetivo de identificar los principales problemas de salud para darles solución, propiciando una mejor calidad en la atención y satisfacción de la población. El presente trabajo pretendió hacer una revisión sobre el desarrollo de los valores éticos en la práctica estomatológica desde el contexto actual donde la exigencia en los procederes, la responsabilidad científica, la auto preparación individual o colectiva unido al compromiso creciente con nuestra población asignada, deben guiar la diaria labor de indiscutible importancia del estomatólogo desde la atención primaria.

During centuries, the odontological practice performs its activities from the ethic perspective of the Hippocratic medicine carrying out a paternalistic-kind healing practice. Currently, Bioethics understanding in the Stomatology field and the configuration of the scenery for aiming the analysis of the effects that could provoke the odontologist´s actions and omissions in patient´s health, outline the ambit of professional responsibility. For this reason, general integral Stomatologists should unavoidably know their profession ethical principles, and also their responsibilities, with the aim of identifying main health problems for solving them favoring a better population´s health care and satisfaction. The current work pretends to carry out a review on the development of ethic values in the stomatologic practice from the present-day context where the exigency in the procedures, scientific responsibility, individual or collective auto-preparation together with growing compromise with our assigned population, should guide the unarguably important stomatologist´s daily work in primary health care.

Empedocles' Influence on Hippocratic Medicine: The Problem of Hypothesis and Human Nature / 의사학

This paper aims to show Empedocles' influence on Hippocratic medicine through the analysis of two Hippocratic writings, i.e. On Ancient Medicine(AM) and On the Nature of Man(NM). I think that the author of AM criticizes philosophical physicians or natural philosophers, especially Empedocles, that at least Empedoclean philosophy is not necessary to medicine. On the contrary, the author of NM positively receives Empedoclean position in several aspects. It is necessary to examine these two writings in order to consider Empedocles' positive and negative influences on Hippocratic Medicine. The author of AM attacks the philosophical physicians who lay down as a hypothesis for their account hot or cold or wet or dry, in other words the same one or two things as the primary cause of all diseases. But it does not seem clear what the point of his criticism is. I think that his criticism lies on the following three points: (1) Hot or cold or wet or dry is neither the important cause of disease nor the important element for therapy;(2) The cause of diseases is not the same one or two things, but myriad things; (3) hypothesis as assumption is not necessary to medicine. These three points implies the criticism against cosmology and methodology of some early Greek philosophers, in particular Empedocles. Accordingly we should notice that the author attacks physicians influenced by Empedocles especially. Then whom does attack the author of AM? Lloyd points out Philolaus as the author's opponent, since he argues that man consists of the hot(Lloyd, 1963: 124-25). But I think that Lloyd narrowed down the opponent's range excessively. For example, if a physician holds that we consist of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that these are causes of diseases, does he belong to those whom the author attacked, or not? At a glance he doesn't seem to do. Because he lays down not one or two things as the cause of diseases, but four. But strictly we should tell that he does only two. Because hot and cold are contrary, and so both can not be causes of an disease at the same time. The same account applies to dry and wet too. Therefore even if someone lays down hot, cold, dry and wet as causes of diseases, it is right to regard him as the author's opponent. Moreover if a physician explains diseases by hot or cold or dry or wet, whether these are substances or qualities, in my opinion he is the author's opponent. Thus the opponents' range can be enlarged. While the author of AM attempts to exclude Empedoclean thought from medicine, the author of NM adopts it so positively. This author rejects the monistic view about man in chapters 1 and 2, and in chapter 3 tells that man is composed of hot, cold, dry and wet. And in the subsequent chapters he argues that man's body is composed of the four humours, and associates each humour with hot, cold, dry and wet respectively. It is noticeable that the author takes the pluralistic view and thinks that elements are four in number, that he make much of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that he explains man' generation and health by the balanced mixture. This shows Empedocles' influence on the author. In addition, the author holds that man and cosmos have hot, cold, dry and wet equally, and their change in cosmos according to seasons brings the increase or decrease of humours to man's body. Here is Empedocles' theory of macrocosm-microcosm found.