Ethical Controversy and Reflection on Gene Enhancement / 中国医学伦理学

Gene enhancement is one of the research hotspots at home and abroad in recent years. Gene enhancement is expected to treat human genetic diseases and improve human abilities and traits, but it also raises a series of ethical problems. From the perspective of ethics, those who support gene enhancement, starting from the open and unfinished state of human nature, advocate that gene enhancement is an effective alternative to promote human nature for kindness and social equity, and believe that gene enhancement does not necessarily lead to inequality, on the contrary, it contributes to moral improvement. Opponents, starting from the integrity of human nature, hold that gene enhancement challenges human dignity, causes a crisis of human identity, has a serious impact on social fairness and justice, and is also a violation of the natural order. By sorting out and analyzing the ethical viewpoints that support and oppose gene enhancement, this paper found that the social fairness and justice issues caused by gene enhancement can be reasonably solved through exercising the roles of the government and the market, while the human nature problems caused by gene enhancement are more complex, and the setting of natural standards lacks a basis. At the same time, gene enhancement also makes people further reflect on the relationship between human and technology.

The Construction of Doctor-patient Community with a Shared Future Based on Mencius’ Theory of Original Goodness of Human Nature / 中国医学伦理学

Since the first medical reform, China has carried out three reforms and improvements to the medical system. However, there are still some shortcomings, the problems at different levels are mainly reflected in the doctor-patient relationship. Doctor-patient conflict has become one of the hot topics of social focus. Under the development of the country and the joint efforts of all parties, doctor-patient conflict has been alleviated to a certain extent, and the doctor-patient relationship has been developing in a better direction. With the proposal of the concept of "doctor-patient community with a shared future", the joint construction of a community between doctors and patients has become a further goal. Mencius’ theory of original goodness of human nature echoes the construction of the contemporary doctor-patient community with a shared future. It criticizes the empirical theory of human nature and emphasizes the constructive and initiative of goodness in nature, that is, to achieve goodness in nature through preservation and expansion. In the doctor-patient relationship, goodness in nature is the construction of doctor-patient community with a shared future, which requires both doctors and patients to work together with firm confidence and gradually complete the construction of the community by continuous practice.

El mal en Jean Jacques Rousseau: sobre el ser humano y el conocimiento de sí / The evil in Jean Jacques Rousseau: on the human being and the knowledge of himself

Este artículo se ocupa del mal en Rousseau, recurriendo a cuatro imágenes, a saber: la vida social (socie-dad) y el hombre social (homme de l ́homme), en contraste con el estado de naturaleza (état de nature) y el hombre natural (homme naturel). Imágenes de orden lógico, esto es, filosófico argumentativas, que exponen la tensión y el alejamiento del hombre con respecto a su naturaleza. El supuesto indica que este alejamiento se eleva como la imposibilidad del conocimiento pleno de sí; convierte al ser humano en alguien extraño para sí que hipostasia su concepto en las determinaciones de la vida social. El método utilizado se desprende de la filosofía misma de Rousseau. El procedimiento se organiza con la identificación y presen-tación de un supuesto y su desarrollo lógico mediante argumentos que requieren la selección, organización y sistematización de fuentes encaminadas a exponer el supuesto en toda su complejidad

This article deals with evil in Rousseau, resorting to four images, namely. Social life (society) and social man (Homme de l'homme) are in contrast to (contrast with)) the state of nature (état de nature) and the natural man (Homme naturel). Images of logical order, that is, argumentative philosophical, which expose the tension and distance of man from his nature. The assumption indicates that this estrangement rises as the impossibility of full self-knowledge; it turns the human being into someone foreign to himself who hypostasia his concept in the determinations of social life. The method used follows from Rousseau's philosophy. The procedure is organized with the identification and presentation of an assumption and its logical development through arguments that require the selection, organization, and systematization of sources aimed at exposing the assumption in all its complexity.

Future scenarios of land-use-cover effects on pollination supply and demand in São Paulo State, Brazil / Cenários futuros de mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo e seus efeitos sobre oferta e demanda de polinização no estado de São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract: Rapid land-use/land cover changes (LULCC) have led to habitat loss and fragmentation in the natural forest areas, which are mainly due to the intense and rapid expansion of urban areas and intense agricultural management. These processes are strongly threatening biodiversity maintenance and the ecosystem services provided by them. Among the ecosystem services under threat, pollination has been widely studied since this service is essential to promote food production and, therefore, human well-being. In a scenario of increasing LULCC it is crucial to understand the interplay between these changes, pollination demand by insect-dependent crops and pollinator availability to ensure these ecosystem services meet the increased demand for food production. In this study, we developed a conceptual model to disentangle the relationships between human-nature, especially LULCC, and its consequences, to the delivery of pollination service. We also presented a case study in the Brazilian São Paulo state, where we modeled the effects of predicted LULCC associated to agriculture expansion between the years 2012 and 2030 on pollinator demand by crops and pollinator supply, for fourteen economically important crops. Additionally, we systematized an expert-based Ecosystem Service matrix to estimate the influences of LULCC on the provision of pollination. Our results showed that by 2030, the demand for pollination will increase by 40% on average, while pollinator supply, estimated using suitability values for the different land-use/cover classes, will show, on average, a 3% decrease. Our results highlight the importance of considering the dialogue among stakeholders, governments, institutions, and scientists to find alternatives and strategies to promote pollinator-friendly practices and safeguard the provision of pollination services in a future under LULCC.

Resumo: As aceleradas mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo levaram à perda e fragmentação de habitat das florestas naturais, principalmente devido a uma intensa e rápida expansão de áreas urbanas e ao intensivo manejo agrícola. Esses processos ameaçam fortemente a manutenção da biodiversidade e os serviços ecossistêmicos associados. Entre os serviços ecossistêmicos ameaçados, a polinização tem sido amplamente estudada, pois se trata de um serviço essencial para a produção de alimentos e, consequentemente, para o bem-estar humano. Em um cenário de crescentes mudanças no uso e cobertura do solo, é crucial entender a interação entre essas mudanças, a demanda de polinização por culturas dependentes de insetos e a disponibilidade de polinizadores para garantir que esse serviço ecossistêmico atenda o aumento da demanda produtiva de alimentos. Neste estudo, desenvolvemos um modelo conceitual para evidenciar as relações homem-natureza, especialmente as consequências das mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo sobre a prestação do serviço de polinização. Nós também apresentamos um estudo de caso no estado brasileiro de São Paulo, onde modelamos os efeitos de mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo associados à expansão de agricultura entre os anos de 2012 e 2030 e as demandas e oferta de polinizadores por cultura, para quatorze culturas economicamente importantes. Além disso, sistematizamos uma matriz de serviços ecossistêmicos baseada em conhecimento de especialistas para estimar as influências das mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo na provisão do serviço de polinização. Nossos resultados mostraram que até 2030, a demanda por polinização aumentará em média 40%, enquanto a oferta de polinizadores estimada, usando valores de adequação para as diferentes classes de uso e cobertura do solo, terá uma redução média de 3%. Nossos resultados destacam a importância do diálogo entre agricultores e outros importantes agentes impulsionando as mudanças de uso do solo, governos, instituições e cientistas para encontrar alternativas e estratégias para promover práticas favoráveis aos polinizadores e salvaguardar a prestação de serviços de polinização em cenários futuros de mudanças de uso e cobertura do solo.

Desdobramentos filosóficos a partir de Winnicott / Philosophical developments from Winnicott

O objetivo é desenvolver os desdobramentos filosóficos que a teoria do amadurecimento pessoal de Winnicott tem a oferecer para iluminar reflexões pertinentes à filosofia. Os conceitos eleitos para a discussão são natureza humana, continuidade-de-ser, eu e si-mesmo. Após percorrer esses conceitos que se intercambiam, far-se-á uso da noção de cooriginação dependente, mostrando que relacionalidade, cuidado e confiabilidade proporcionam uma sustentação para a compreensão de ser no mundo; para a existência de um si-mesmo que não surge como algo ou uma propriedade que se assenta sobre outro algo.

The objective is to develop the philosophical developments that Winnicott's theory of personal maturation has to offer to illuminate reflections pertinent to philosophy. The elected concepts for the discussion are human nature, continuity of being, and self. After going through these interchangeable concepts, the notion of codependent arising will be used, showing that relationality, care and reliability provide a support for the understanding of being in the world; for the existence of a self that does not arise as something or a property that rests on something else.

The Connection between Charles Darwin's Evolutionary Theory of ‘Heredity of Behaviors’ and the 19th Century Neuroscience: The Influence of Neuroscience on Darwin's Overcoming of Lamarck's Theory of Evolution / 의사학

The nineteenth century neuroscience studied the instinct of animal to understand the human mind. In particular, it has been found that the inheritance of unconscious behavior like instinct is mediated through ganglion chains, such as the spinal cord or sympathetic nervous system, which control unconscious reflexes. At the same time, the theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (hereafter ‘IAC’) widely known as Lamarck's evolutionary theory provided the theoretical frame on the origin of instinct and the heredity of action that the parental generation's habits were converted into the nature of the offspring generation. Contrary to conventional knowledge, this theory was not originally invented by Lamarck, and Darwin also did not discard this theory even after discovering the theory of natural selection in 1838 and maintained it throughout his intellectual life. Above all, in the field of epigenetics, the theory of ‘IAC’ has gained attention as a reliable scientific theory today. Darwin discovered crucial errors in the late 1830s that the Lamarck version's theory of ‘IAC’ did not adequately account for the principle of the inheritance of unconscious behavior like instinct. Lamarck's theory regarded habits as conscious and willful acts and saw that those habits are transmitted through the brain to control conscious actions. Lamarck's theory could not account for the complex and elaborate instincts of invertebrate animals, such as brainless ants. Contrary to Lamarck's view, Darwin established the new theory of ‘IAC’ that could be combined with contemporary neurological theory, which explains the heredity of unconscious behavior. Based on the knowledge of neurology, Darwin was able to translate the ‘principle of habit’ into a neurological term called ‘principle of reflex’. This article focuses on how Darwin join the theory of ‘IAC’ with nineteenth century neuroscience and how the neurological knowledge from the nineteenth century contributed to Darwin's overcoming of Lamarck's ‘IAC’. The significance of this study is to elucidate Darwin's notion of ‘IAC’ theory rather than natural selection theory as a principle of heredity of behavior. The theory of ‘IAC’ was able to account for the rapid variation of instincts in a relatively short period of time, unlike natural selection, which operates slowly in geological time spans of tens of millions of years. The nineteenth century neurological theory also provided neurological principles for ‘plasticity of instinct,’ empirically supporting the fact that all nervous systems responsible for reflexes respond sensitively to very fine stimuli. However, researchers of neo-Darwinian tendencies, such as Richard Dawkins and evolutionary psychologists advocating the ‘selfish gene’ hypothesis, which today claim to be Darwin's descendants, are characterized by human nature embedded in biological information, such as the brain and genes, so that it cannot change at all. This study aims to contribute to reconstructing the evolutionary discourse by illuminating Darwin's insights into the “plasticity of nature” that instincts can change relatively easily even at the level of invertebrates such as earthworms.

Reinventing Bioethics in a Post-humanist and Post-truth Society. The Present and Future of Bioethics / Reinventar la bioética en una sociedad posthumanista y de posverdad. El presente y futuro de la bioética / Reinventar a bioética em uma sociedade pós-humanista e pós-verdade. O presente e o futuro da bioética

Abstract Bioethics is going through a rough patch in the midst of a society that seems to run away very fast from true ethical and humanistic values. Post-humanism presents a new model of the human being, one that dispenses with the principles and concepts that have been employed so far by humanity. The discourse in bioethics presents this model without any relationship to the anthropology that has been used for centuries and does so in a way that is totally lacking in ethical references. These dissimilarities reflect a misrepresented academic perspective that belongs to a post-truth era. Concepts such as dignity, human nature, quality of life, respect for life and vulnerability are not well understood. When it comes to decision-making on the so-called bioethical dilemmas, it lays out a new biotechnologically improved version of man that prevails over real health and biological concerns that need to be solved.

Resumen La bioética atraviesa un momento difícil en medio de una sociedad que parece huir muy rápidamente de los verdaderos valores éticos y humanísticos. El posthumanismo presenta un nuevo modelo del ser humano, uno que prescinde de los principios y conceptos que han sido empleados hasta ahora por la humanidad. El discurso en bioética presenta este modelo sin ninguna relación con la antropología que se ha utilizado durante siglos y lo hace de una manera que carece totalmente de referencias éticas. Estas disimilitudes reflejan una perspectiva académica mal representada que pertenece a una era posterior a la verdad. Los conceptos como la dignidad, la naturaleza humana, la calidad de vida, el respeto por la vida y la vulnerabilidad no se comprenden bien. Cuando se trata de la toma de decisiones sobre los llamados dilemas bioéticos, presenta una nueva versión biotecnológica del hombre que prevalece sobre la salud real y las preocupaciones biológicas que deben resolverse.

Resumo A bioética está passando por um momento difícil em meio a uma sociedade que parece fugir rapidamente dos verdadeiros valores éticos e humanistas. O pós-humanismo apresenta um novo modelo de ser humano, que dispensa os princípios e conceitos que foram usados ​​até agora pela humanidade. O discurso da bioética apresenta esse modelo sem qualquer relação com a antropologia, que tem sido usada há séculos e o faz de maneira que carece totalmente de referências éticas. Essas diferenças refletem uma perspectiva acadêmica mal representada que pertence a uma era posterior à verdade. Conceitos como dignidade, natureza humana, qualidade de vida, respeito à vida e vulnerabilidade não são bem compreendidos. Quando se trata de tomar decisões sobre os chamados "dilemas bioéticos", ele apresenta uma nova versão biotecnológica do homem que prevalece sobre a saúde real e as preocupações biológicas que devem ser resolvidas.

Mangrove Economy: etho-politics and social change / Economía del manglar: etho política y cambio social / Economia de manguezais: etho-política e mudança social

ABSTRACT An advance of the research project «Bio-entrepreneurship: productive configuration of agroecosystems¼ is presented. The interpretative framework is based on political concepts, economy and social change, also on relations between capitalism, modernity and the nation-state. At the same time, there are observed alternative cultural practices from Afro-descendant women in their territories, their banishments and their ancestral legacy in the colombian pacific coast. It was found that meanings emerge through the stories told by them, which talk about an economy that runs on a space-time in/from the re-existence of human groups. The human groups that inhabit the ancestral territory and the ones that were banished from the mangrove and that recreate it and make it come alive in different contexts (including the urban popular). JEL CLASSIFICATION A19, B49, B59, H89, 119

RESUMEN Se presenta un avance del proyecto de investigación «Bioemprendimiento: configuración productiva de los agroecosistemas¼. El marco interpretativo se basa en conceptos de política, economía y cambio social, también en las relaciones entre el capitalismo, la modernidad y el estado-nación. Al mismo tiempo, se observan prácticas culturales alternativas de mujeres afrodescendientes en sus territorios, sus destierros y su legado ancestral en la costa pacífica colombiana. Se descubrió que los significados surgen a través de las historias contadas por ellos, que hablan sobre una economía que se ejecuta en un espacio-tiempo en / desde la reexistencia de grupos humanos. Los grupos humanos que habitan el territorio ancestral y los que fueron desterrados del manglar y que lo recrean y lo hacen cobrar vida en diferentes contextos (incluido el urbano popular). CÓDIGOS JEL A19, B49, B59, H89, 119

RESUMO Um avanço do projeto de pesquisa «Bio-empreendedorismo: configuração produtiva dos agroecossistemas¼ é apresentado. A estrutura interpretativa é baseada em conceitos políticos, economia e mudança social, também nas relações entre capitalismo, modernidade e estado-nação. Ao mesmo tempo, práticas culturais alternativas de mulheres afrodescendentes são observadas em seus territórios, seu exilio e seu legado ancestral na costa do Pacífico colombiano. Descobriu-se que os significados surgem através das histórias contadas por eles, que falam de uma economia que corre num espaço-tempo na / da reexistência de grupos humanos. Os grupos humanos que habitam o território ancestral e aqueles que foram exilados do manguezal e que o recriam e o tornam vivo em diferentes contextos (incluindo o popular urbano). CLASSIFICAÇÕES JEL A19, B49, B59, H89, 119

O lugar da natureza humana em Kant / The place of human nature in Kant

O objetivo deste artigo é apresentar a hipótese de leitura do lugar sistemático da natureza humana na obra de Kant como elemento operador de regras (sujeito) e como objeto sui generis de aplicação de regras práticas. Assim, mostraremos que a pergunta pela possibilidade dos juízos sintéticos, as quatro perguntas kantianas e o esboço do sistema da filosofia transcendental em Opus Postumum ordenam sistematicamente a filosofia transcendental.

The aim of this paper is to show the hypothesis of reading the systematic place of human nature in Kant's work as a rule operator (subject) and as a sui generis object of practical rules. We will show that the question of the possibility of synthetic judgments, the four Kantian questions, and the outline of the system of transcendental philosophy in Opus Postumum systematically order transcendental philosophy.

Inflexões fenomenológicas sobre a natureza humana / Phenomenological inflections about human nature

Trata-se de abordar os conceitos de natureza humana e mundo com base na filosofia de Hannah Arendt, evidenciando a articulação entre os conceitos de mal banal, pensamento e aparência. Isso exige uma reflexão sobre a maneira fenomenológica com que Arendt organiza a dinâmica de seu pensamento; levamos em conta ao usar o conceito de natureza humana, e não condição humana, a concepção antropológica de Winnicott, que de muitas maneiras pode ser trazida para pensar as questões que nos propusemos tratar neste texto.

Our purpose in this paper is to present the concepts of human nature and world based on the Hannah Arendt's philosophy, evidencing the articulation between the concepts of banality of evil, thought and appearance. This task demands some reflections about the phenomenological way than Arendt organizes her dynamic of her thinking. Our choice is to use the concept of human nature, instead the concept of human condition, because the Winnicott's anthropological conception, that can be setting in order to think about the issues presented in this paper.

Predictores psicosociales que subyacen al pensamiento político: un estudio en dos poblaciones universitarias costarricenses / Psychosocial underpinnings predicting the political thought: a study on two Costa Rican universities / Preditores psicossociais subjacentes ao pensamento político: um estudo em duas populações universitárias da Costa Rica / Indicateurs psychosociaux qui soustendent la pensée politique: une étude réalisée au sein de deux communautés universitaires costariciennes

El objetivo de la investigación es determinar la relación existente entre las actitudes en cuanto a la libertad económica y el Autoritarismo como dos variables dependientes respecto a las variables independientes a) nivel de dominancia social, b) la atribución de la pobreza, c) el nivel de religiosidad individual y d) la percepción de la naturaleza humana. Las variables dependientes que pretenden representar el pensar político se encuentran representadas por dos variables escalares; una de actitudes hacia la libertad económica representando la tradicional "izquierda - derecha" y otra de Autoritarismo. El estudio fue llevado a cabo con una muestra de 196 estudiantes de dos universidades costarricenses, una pública y una privada especializada en ciencias de la salud. Entre los resultados más importantes se obtuvo una relación entre la orientación a la dominancia social y autoritarismo, además de relaciones significativas en cuanto a la religiosidad con a) el autoritarismo, b) libertad económica (derecha económica) y c) la percepción positiva de la naturaleza humana.

The aim is to determine the existing relation between attitudes towards economical freedom and Authoritarianism as two dependent variables in comparison to the independent variables a) level of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), b) poverty attribution, c) the individual religiosity level and d) the perception on human nature. The dependent variables represent the political thinking which is represented by two variables; economical freedom representing the traditional "left - right" conception regarding the economical aspect, and an authoritarianism scale. 196 college students from two Costa Rican universities were surveyed; a public and a private one specialized in health sciences. Among the most important results, a significant relation was found between Social Dominance Orientation and Authoritarianism, as well as between religiousness and a) Authoritarianism, b) Economic freedom (right-wing), and c) a positive perception on human nature.

O objetivo da pesquisa foi determinar a relação entre as variáveis dependentes atitudes para com a liberdade econômica e autoritarismo com as variáveis independentes: a) nível de dominância social, b) atribuição de pobreza, c) nível de religiosidade individual e d) percepção da natureza humana. As variáveis dependentes que pretendem representar o pensamento político foram representadas por duas variáveis escalares, uma de atitudes em relação à liberdade econômica que representa a tradicional "esquerda - direita" e outra de autoritarismo. O estudo foi realizado com uma amostra de 196 estudantes de duas universidades de Costa Rica, uma pública e uma privada especializada em ciências da saúde. Destacam-se como resultados a relação entre a orientação em relação à dominância social e o autoritarismo, além de relações significativas entre a religiosidade e as variáveis: a) autoritarismo, b) libertade econômica (direita econômica) y c) a percepção positiva naturaza humana.

L'objectif de la recherche est de déterminer la relation existante des attitudes face à la liberté économique et l'Autoritarisme, comme deux variables dépendantes, par rapport aux variables indépendantes : a) le niveau de dominance sociale, b) l'attribution de la pauvreté, c) le niveau de religiosité individuelle et d) la perception de la nature humaine. Les variables dépendantes que prétend représenter la pensée politique, sont représentées par deux variables scalaires; l'une, d'attitudes envers la liberté économique représentant la traditionnelle "gauche - droite" et, l'autre, de l'Autoritarisme. L'étude a été élaborée sur un échantillonnage de 196 étudiants issus de deux universités costariciennes, une université publique et une université privée, spécialisée en sciences de la santé. Parmi les résultats les plus importants se trouve une relation entre l'orientation de dominance sociale et autoritarisme, et de relations significatives quant à la religiosité avec a) l'autoritarisme, b) la liberté économique (droite économique) et la perception positive de la nature humaine.

"From ""Human Nature"" to ""Medicine Nature""- Analysis of Moral Emotion Education of Medical Students" / 中国医学伦理学

Moral emotion education of medical students should begin with arousing human nature of students and making them to have the sense of consciousness to patients, which takes sympathy as the core. However, when faced with the increase of doctor-patient contradiction, students are easy to suspect the general sense. So students should be guided to understand the necessity of moral emotion in professional activity of doctors, and thus to adhere to treat patients with emotion due to responsibility. On this basis, through combining the education of having emo-tion to patient with working reasonably, medical students will gradually take treating patients with emotion as their own compulsory emotion, and to realize the transformation from human nature to medicine nature.

Acerca de lo natural en el hombre: reflexiones a propósito de los conceptos de instinto y pulsión en el psicoanálisis / About the natural in man: reflections on the concepts of instinct and drive in psychoanalysis

Los conceptos de pulsión e instinto son fundamentales para comprender las bases de lo que podría llamarse "naturaleza humana". No obstante, al perseguir tales conceptos, la naturaleza misma del ser humano, se tambalea. A lo largo del presente escrito, procura darse cuenta de la paradoja entre los conceptos de pulsión e instinto, pero al mismo tiempo, de la imposibilidad de prescindir de uno u otro para dar cuenta de aquello que pudiera constituirse como factor diferencial entre el ser humano y las demás especies. Es pues, un recorrido por algunos de los conceptos planteados por Freud y Lacan, a propósito de las pulsiones y los instintos.

The concepts of drive and instinct are fundamental to understanding the bases of what might be called "human nature". However, in pursuing such concepts, the very nature of the human being is reeling. Throughout this paper, seeks to realize the paradox between the concepts of drive and instinct, but at the same time, the impossibility of dispensing with one or the other to account for what could be a differential factor between humans and the other species. It is, therefore, a tour of some of the concepts proposed by Freud and Lacan, with regard to instincts and instincts.

Liberdade e natureza (in)humana (Zizek versus Habermas) / Freedom and nature (in)human (Zizek versus Habermas)

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo problematizar a relação entre o princípio de liberdade e a ideia de natureza humana. Defendemos a tese de que o verdadeiro conceito de liberdade só pode ser pensado além dos limites (naturalmente) estabelecidos pela espécie humana. Logo, liberdade tem a ver com o domínio do inumano, não com o do humano. Desse modo, convém contrapor duas perspectivas contemporâneas que divergem radicalmente sobre o conceito de modernidade: a pragmática formal de Jürgen Habermas e o materialismo dialético de Slavoj Zizek. Tomamos como fio condutor, portanto, a polêmica sobre o tema da biogenética, e, a partir daí, procuramos demonstrar como a concepção de modernidade para Zizek - apoiado principalmente em Hegel e Lacan - revela-se ainda mais radical do que o projeto de uma modernidade inacabada de Habermas.

This paper aims to discuss the relationship between the principle of freedom and the idea of human nature. We seek to argue that the very concept of freedom can only be thought beyond the limits of course set by the human species. I.e. freedom has to do with the domain of the inhumane, not of the human. Therefore, it is essential to oppose two contemporary perspectives that differ radically about the concept of modernity: the Habermas' formal pragmatics and Slavoj Zizek's dialectical materialism. We must take, therefore, as a guide the controversy on the subject of biogenetic, and, from there, to demonstrate how the concept of modernity to Zizek proves to be even more radical than the Habermas' project of modernity unfinished.

Transumanismo e o futuro (pós-)humano / Transhumanism and the (post)human future

O transumanismo é uma controversa perspectiva de investimento na transformação da condição humana. Visando ao melhoramento biotecnológico da natureza humana, ele protagoniza o debate acerca do futuro (pós-)humano. Na base da concepção transumanista está o investimento na biotecnociência como um modo de Iluminismo humanista de raízes biológicas. O objetivo do artigo é analisar o debate sobre o futuro da humanidade. Para tanto, apresentamos a perspectiva transumanista, ressaltando definições, características, valores e principais argumentos, analisando o conceito de natureza humana, pois ele é fundamental na polarizada discussão travada entre os transumanistas e bioconservadores. Nossas principais conclusões apontam para a impertinência dessa polarização, bem como do uso do conceito de natureza humana e pós-humano para esclarecer o tema do melhoramento humano. Assim, cumpre despolarizar o debate e apostar otimista e prudentemente no futuro biotecnológico...

Transhumanism is a controversial perspective of the investment in transformation of the human condition. Targeting at biotechnological human nature enhancement, it emerges as one of the protagonists in the debate about the (post)human future. At the base transhumanist conception is the investment on the biotechnoscience as a humanistic iluminism of biological roots. This paper aims to analyze the debate about the future of humanity. To this end, we present the transhumanist perspective, highlighting definitions, characteristics, values, and main arguments, analyzing the concept of human nature, for it is fundamental in the polarized discussion between the transhumanists and bioconservatives. Our main conclusions indicate the impertinence of the polarization, as well as the use of the concept of human nature and post-human to clarify the theme of human enhancement. Thus, we must depolarize the debate and bet optimistically and prudently in the biotechnological future...

La cuestión del género, ¿un aporte a la comprensión de la mujer? Una reflexión desde la bioética personalista / The question of gender, a contribution to the understanding of women? A reflection from personalistic bioethics

Introducción: La ideología de género pretende alcanzar una sociedad utópica, sin sexos y sin géneros, sin reproducción sexual, sin paternidad ni maternidad, que supere definitivamente la estructura dual varón-mujer y masculino-femenino, mediante la deconstrucción del cuerpo sexuado y, con ello, del propio hombre. Tales planteamientos llaman nuestra atención, por lo que pretendemos analizar desde la bioética personalista dicha temática con el fin de conocer, en primer lugar, el concepto de género y su encuadre histórico; en segundo lugar, se pretende analizar el contenido del planteamiento del género, desde una perspectiva filosófica; en tercer lugar se ha desarrollado ciertas consideraciones finales en torno al género, enfocándolo analíticamente desde la postura de la bioética personalista.(AU)

A vida por um fio / La vida por un hilo / Life, hanging on a thread

Sem Théo não haveria Vincent. Pensamos no quanto o ser humano necessita do ambiente para tornar-se real, criar e acreditar. Théo representou na vida de Vincent Van Gogh este porto seguro. Encontramos em Winnicott, em Cartas a Théo e em três biografias sobre Van Gogh as referências necessárias para acompanhar a impressionante trajetória de Van Gogh, um caso exemplar da luta humana pela vida e da difícil caminhada na busca do si mesmo...

Without Théo there would be no Vincent. We think about how much human beings need the environment to become real, create, and believe. Théo represented this shelter in the life of Vincent Van Gogh. We find in Winnicott, in Letters to Théo, and in three biographies on Van Gogh, the necessary references to follow the amazing trajectory of Van Gogh, an exemplary case of human struggle for life and of the difficult trajectory in the search of oneself...

Sin Théo no habría Vincent. Pensamos en lo tanto que el ser humano necesita del ambiente para hacerse real, crear y creer. Théo representó en la vida de Vincent Van Gogh este puerto seguro. Encontramos en Winnicott, en Cartas a Théo y en tres biografías sobre Van Gogh las referencias necesarias para acompañar el impresionante recorrido de Van Gogh, un caso ejemplar de lucha humana por la vida y de la difícil caminada en la búsqueda de uno mismo...

Empedocles' Influence on Hippocratic Medicine: The Problem of Hypothesis and Human Nature / 의사학

This paper aims to show Empedocles' influence on Hippocratic medicine through the analysis of two Hippocratic writings, i.e. On Ancient Medicine(AM) and On the Nature of Man(NM). I think that the author of AM criticizes philosophical physicians or natural philosophers, especially Empedocles, that at least Empedoclean philosophy is not necessary to medicine. On the contrary, the author of NM positively receives Empedoclean position in several aspects. It is necessary to examine these two writings in order to consider Empedocles' positive and negative influences on Hippocratic Medicine. The author of AM attacks the philosophical physicians who lay down as a hypothesis for their account hot or cold or wet or dry, in other words the same one or two things as the primary cause of all diseases. But it does not seem clear what the point of his criticism is. I think that his criticism lies on the following three points: (1) Hot or cold or wet or dry is neither the important cause of disease nor the important element for therapy;(2) The cause of diseases is not the same one or two things, but myriad things; (3) hypothesis as assumption is not necessary to medicine. These three points implies the criticism against cosmology and methodology of some early Greek philosophers, in particular Empedocles. Accordingly we should notice that the author attacks physicians influenced by Empedocles especially. Then whom does attack the author of AM? Lloyd points out Philolaus as the author's opponent, since he argues that man consists of the hot(Lloyd, 1963: 124-25). But I think that Lloyd narrowed down the opponent's range excessively. For example, if a physician holds that we consist of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that these are causes of diseases, does he belong to those whom the author attacked, or not? At a glance he doesn't seem to do. Because he lays down not one or two things as the cause of diseases, but four. But strictly we should tell that he does only two. Because hot and cold are contrary, and so both can not be causes of an disease at the same time. The same account applies to dry and wet too. Therefore even if someone lays down hot, cold, dry and wet as causes of diseases, it is right to regard him as the author's opponent. Moreover if a physician explains diseases by hot or cold or dry or wet, whether these are substances or qualities, in my opinion he is the author's opponent. Thus the opponents' range can be enlarged. While the author of AM attempts to exclude Empedoclean thought from medicine, the author of NM adopts it so positively. This author rejects the monistic view about man in chapters 1 and 2, and in chapter 3 tells that man is composed of hot, cold, dry and wet. And in the subsequent chapters he argues that man's body is composed of the four humours, and associates each humour with hot, cold, dry and wet respectively. It is noticeable that the author takes the pluralistic view and thinks that elements are four in number, that he make much of hot, cold, dry and wet, and that he explains man' generation and health by the balanced mixture. This shows Empedocles' influence on the author. In addition, the author holds that man and cosmos have hot, cold, dry and wet equally, and their change in cosmos according to seasons brings the increase or decrease of humours to man's body. Here is Empedocles' theory of macrocosm-microcosm found.

El cigoto de nuestra especie es cuerpo humano / The zygote of our species is the human body

Este artículo muestra cómo la palabra de la ciencia aporta un conocimiento directo e indiscutible acerca del comienzo de la vida de cada concebido de nuestra especie: dice cuándo estamos en presencia de un cuerpo humano en los procesos temporales de transmisión de la vida. Aporta también conocimiento directo acerca del carácter personal del embrión por la continuidad de su desarrollo, ya que lo decisivo no es que tenga lugar una continuidad desde el inicio, las etapas embrionarias y fetales, y el nacimiento, sino que esa continuidad suponga continuidad del cuerpo, que siempre es personal. Y un conocimiento indirecto del origen de cada ser humano, al mostrar qué es un cuerpo humano y cómo este tiene ese carácter peculiar exclusivo de los hombres, el carácter personal. En definitiva, la ciencia pone de manifiesto la presencia de una potencia real, distinta de la fuerza de la vida, involucrada en el origen de cada ser humano. El entrelazamiento en la vida única de cada hombre de la dimensión personal y la dimensión biológica es manifestación inequívoca de que existe un único sujeto personal con dos dinamismos. Un ser personal de naturaleza humana.

This article clearly shows science offers us direct and indisputable knowledge about the beginning of human life. It tells us when we are in the presence of a human body in the temporal processes involving the transmission of life. It also gives us direct information about the personal nature of the embryo through the continuity of its development. The decisive fact is not that there is an uninterrupted sequence from the start; that is, from the early embryonic and fetal stages and birth, but that this continuity assumes the continuity of a body, which is always personal. Science offers us indirect knowledge about the origin of each human being, showing it has a human body and every human body has a trait exclusive to man: that of being a person. Science definitely demonstrates the presence of a real power, one that is different from the living force and is involved in the origin of each human being. The intertwining of biological and personal dimensions in the life of every man is a clear sign that every human being exists as one subject with two dynamisms: a personal being that is human in nature.

Este artigo mostra como a palavra da ciência oferece um conhecimento direto e indiscutível sobre o início da vida de cada ser concebido de nossa espécie: dize quando esperamos na presença de um corpo humano nos processos temporais de transmissão da vida. Também fornece conhecimento direto sobre o caráter pessoal do embrião em seu desenvolvimento, já que o fator decisivo não é a continuidade desde o início, as etapas embrionárias e fetais e o nascimento, mas que a continuidade assumir a continuidade do corpo, que é sempre pessoal. Assim mesmo, o artigo provê conhecimento indireto da origem de todo ser humano, mostrando que é um corpo humano e como ele tem a natureza peculiar dos homens, o caráter pessoal. Em suma, a ciência revela a presença de uma potencia real, diferente da força da vida, envolvida na origem de todo ser humano. O entrelaçamento da dimensão pessoal e a dimensão biológica na vida de cada homem é a manifestação clara de que existe um único sujeito pessoal com duas dinâmicas. Um ser pessoal de natureza humana.

Ehical Reading Of Platos’s The Republic.

The last four books of Plato’s THE REPUBLIC manifest fecundity, not simply in terms of books or pages but in terms of topics or themes. Plato in this opus, true to the form of a Socratic disciple, uses the method of the catena -chain. That is, one topic is nexated or interconnected to the other. This is also the reason why I have decided to delve into this paper not in terms of books but thematically, more specifically, those I consider to be major ones. These themes that I deem to be major ones contained in the four books are Plato’s notions of human nature and morality, socio-political philosophy, the process of education or learning, and then his epistemology. However, here I have decided to tackle only one, i.e., Plato’s notions of human nature and morality. Lastly, let it also be pointed out that all the expository work and critique shared here are all mine, and thus, for any error or shortcoming, the burden is solely mine and not of Plato nor of any other person.