Influence of Recent Trial History on Interval Timing / 神经科学通报·英文版

Interval timing is involved in a variety of cognitive behaviors such as associative learning and decision-making. While it has been shown that time estimation is adaptive to the temporal context, it remains unclear how interval timing behavior is influenced by recent trial history. Here we found that, in mice trained to perform a licking-based interval timing task, a decrease of inter-reinforcement interval in the previous trial rapidly shifted the time of anticipatory licking earlier. Optogenetic inactivation of the anterior lateral motor cortex (ALM), but not the medial prefrontal cortex, for a short time before reward delivery caused a decrease in the peak time of anticipatory licking in the next trial. Electrophysiological recordings from the ALM showed that the response profiles preceded by short and long inter-reinforcement intervals exhibited task-engagement-dependent temporal scaling. Thus, interval timing is adaptive to recent experience of the temporal interval, and ALM activity during time estimation reflects recent experience of interval.

Engajamento com o trabalho e exaustão emocional de profissionais da socioeducação / Engagement with work and emotional exhaustion of socio-education professionals / Comprometimiento con el trabajo y agotamiento emocional de profesionales de la socioeducación

Buscou-se compreender a percepção dos profissionais das medidas socioeducativas acerca do seu engajamento e exaustão com o trabalho. Para isso, realizou-se um estudo qualitativo, descritivo e exploratório, por meio de uma entrevista semiestruturada a três integrantes da equipe técnica e dois coordenadores de segurança (idades entre 28 e 57 anos). A análise dos dados foi conduzida com o auxílio do software Iramuteq, que gerou cinco classes temáticas: a) rotina das unidades socioeducativas e as demandas do trabalho dos profissionais; b) gestão de conflitos nas unidades, da mediação à polícia; c) recursos pessoais e institucionais relacionados ao exercício da profissão; d) aspectos relacionados ao contexto de trabalho; e, por último, e) indicadores de esgotamento laboral, adversidades e adoecimento profissional. Os participantes descreveram diversas demandas relacionadas à exaustão física e psicológica (e.g. equipe reduzida, insalubridade, baixo salário e fragilidade do vínculo empregatício), mas também ressaltaram a relevância social de sua prática profissional junto aos adolescentes e o relacionamento positivo entre os profissionais como fatores que justificam o seu engajamento e permanência nas instituições socioeducativas. Conclui-se evidenciando que os contextos têm influência direta na saúde desses profissionais, o que sublinha a importância de se olhar para suas condições de trabalho e para aspectos ligados à saúde mental, promovendo, desse modo, avanços na realidade socioeducativa.(AU)

The aim was to understand the perception of professionals of socio-educational measures about their engagement and exhaustion with work. To that end, a qualitative, descriptive, and exploratory study was carried out by means of a semi-structured interview with three members of the technical team and two safety coordinators (ages between 28 and 57 years). Data analysis was conducted with the help of the IRAMUTEQ software, which generated five thematic classes: a) routine of socio-educational units and work demands of professionals; b) conflict management in the units, from mediation to the police; c) personal and institutional resources related to the exercise of the profession; d) aspects related to the work context; and, lastly, e) indicators of labor exhaustion, adversity, and occupational illness. Participants described several demands related to physical and psychological exhaustion (e.g. reduced team, insalubrity, low salary, and fragility of the employment relationship), but also emphasized the social relevance of their professional practice with adolescents and the positive relationship among professionals as factors that justify their engagement and permanence in socio- educational institutions. It is concluded that the contexts have a direct influence on the health of these professionals, which highlights the importance of looking at their working conditions and aspects related to mental health, thus promoting advances in the socio-educational reality.(AU)

Se procuró comprender la percepción de los profesionales que trabajan con medidas socioeducativas sobre su comprometimiento y el agotamiento en el trabajo. Para esto, se realizó un estudio cualitativo, descriptivo y exploratorio, por medio de una entrevista semiestructurada a tres integrantes del equipo técnico y dos coordinadores de seguridad (edades entre 28 y 57 años). El análisis de los datos fue conducido en el software IRAMUTEQ, que generó cinco clases temáticas: a) rutina de las unidades socioeducativas: demandas del trabajo de los profesionales; b) manejo de conflictos en las unidades: desde la mediación hasta la policía; c) recursos personales e institucionales relacionados al ejercicio de la profesión; d) aspectos relacionados al contexto del trabajo; e) indicadores de agotamiento laboral, adversidades y enfermedad del profesional. Los participantes describieron diversas demandas relacionadas al agotamiento físico y psicológico (por ej.: equipo reducido, insalubridad, bajos sueldos y fragilidad del vínculo laboral), pero también destacaron la importancia social de su práctica profesional junto a los adolescentes y el vínculo positivo entre los profesionales como factores que justifican su comprometimiento y permanencia en las instituciones socioeducativas. Se concluye que los contextos influyen directamente en la salud de estos profesionales, lo que rescata la importancia de verificar sus condiciones de trabajo y los aspectos relacionados a la salud mental, promoviendo, de este modo, avances en la realidad socioeducativa.(AU)

Defender self-efficacy and moral disengagement on social support and bystander behaviors among primary school students: a multilevel moderated mediation model

Abstract This study examines the influence of social support on bystander behaviors, the mediating and moderating effects of moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy at the individual and class levels, and their cross-level interaction. A total of 1310 children in grades 4-6 completed our questionnaire survey at four-time points between October and December in 2021. The questionnaires include the Scale of Perceived Social Support (T1), Moral Disengagement Scale (T2), Defender Self-Efficacy Scale (T3), and Bullying Participant Behaviors Questionnaire (T4). The multilevel moderated mediating model results show that (1) social support negatively predicts reinforcer and outsider behavior and positively predicts defender behavior; (2) defender self-efficacy plays a mediating role between social support and defender behavior, moral disengagement plays a mediating role between social support and bystander behaviors, and defender self-efficacy and moral disengagement play a chain mediation role between social support and bystander behavior; (3a) class-level defender self-efficacy has a direct impact on defender behavior and moderates the relationship between individual defender self-efficacy and reinforcer behavior; and (3b) class-level moral disengagement has a direct impact on defender and outsider behavior and a cross-level moderated role between individual moral disengagement and reinforcer behavior. These results show that the individual and class level defender self-efficacy and moral disengagement can influence the bystander behavior of primary school students, which is of great significance for schools to develop anti-bullying moral education courses and design measures to improve students' anti-bullying self-efficacy.

Equivalência de estímulos e ensino de leitura características dos participantes de estudos empíricos brasileiros de 2008 a 2017 / Stimulus equivalence and reading teaching: characteristics of the participants of Brazilian empirical studies from 2008 to 2017 / Equivalencia de estímulos y enseñanza de lectura: características de los participantes de estudios empíricos brasileños de 2008 a 2017

O presente artigo tem por objetivo descrever as características dos participantes de estudos empíricos que tratam da equivalência de estímulos e ensino de leitura, entre os anos de 2008 a 2017. Foram analisados artigos completos localizados nas bases de dados Periódicos CAPES e PEPSIC, por meio de busca combinada de descritores de equivalência de estímulos e leitura, selecionados a partir de estudos anteriores. Localizaram-se nas bases de dados dezenove artigos que compuseram o estudo. Observou-se que a escola é o local em que mais ocorreram estudos, realizados em sua maioria com crianças de desenvolvimento típico, não leitoras, com faixa etária predominante de seis a sete anos. Sobre o nível de escolaridade dos participantes pode-se identificar que a maioria se encontrava no ensino fundamental, com destaque aos 2° e 3° anos; além disso, foi identificado um estudo com alunos do Ensino Médio. Chama-se atenção à multiplicidade de característica dos participantes (deficiência auditiva, física, intelectual), característica esta vista como positiva e necessária de acordo com os pesquisadores. Sugere-se para estudos futuros ampliação da busca em outros bancos de dados nacionais e internacionais, além da descrição dos procedimentos adotados e resultados obtidos nos diferentes públicos. (AU)

This paper describes the characteristics of the participants of empirical studies dealing with the stimulus equivalence and reading teaching between the years 2008 and 2017. Scientific papers from CAPES and PEPSIC periodical database were analyzed through a combined search of stimulus equivalence and reading descriptors, selected from previous studies. Nineteen articles that composed the study in the databases. It was observed that the school is the place where most studies took place, mostly with children of typical development, non-readers, ranging from six to seven years. Regarding the educational level of the participants, the majority was in elementary school, mainly on the 2nd and 3rd years; and also a high school. It is important to highlight the multiplicity of the participants (hearing and physical impairment and intellectual disability), which is a trend understood as positive and necessary to the researchers. It is suggested, for future studies, to expand the search to national and international databases, besides the description of the adopted procedures and results obtained with different subjects. (AU)

El presente artículo tiene por objetivo describir las características de los participantes de estudios empíricos que tratan de la equivalencia de estímulos y enseñanza de lectura entre los años 2008 y 2017. Se analizaron artículos completos, de las bases de datos "Periódicos CAPES" y "PEPSIC", por medio de la búsqueda combinada de descriptores de equivalencia de estímulos y lectura, seleccionados a partir de estudios anteriores. Se localizaron, en las bases de datos, diecinueve artículos que compusieron el estudio. Se observó que la escuela es el lugar en que más ocurrieron estudios, realizados en su mayoría con niños de desarrollo típico, no lectores, con rango de edad predominante entre los seis y siete años. Sobre el nivel de escolaridad de los participantes, se puede identificar que la mayoría se encontraba en la enseñanza fundamental, con destaque a los 2° y 3° años; además, se identifico un estudio con alumnos de la enseñanza media. Se destaca la multiplicidad de característica de los participantes (discapacidad auditiva, física, intelectual), que es una tendencia comprendida como positiva y necesaria a los ojos de los investigadores. Se sugiere, para estudios futuros, ampliación de la búsqueda en otros bancos de datos nacionales e internacionales, además de la descripción de los procedimientos adoptados y resultados obtenidos en los diferentes públicos. (AU)

Effects of conditioning on the welfare of jaguars (Panthera onca) in captivity / Efeitos do condicionamento sobre o bem-estar de onças-pintadas (Panthera onca) em cativeiro

The jaguar is the largest feline in the Americas and in the face of the threat of extinction and the reduction of natural areas, keeping the species in captivity may be important for its conservation. This condition can lead to a reduction in well-being, especially due to spatial limitation and lack of environmental stimulus. In recent decades, techniques have been sought to minimize the negative impacts of captivity, with an increase in the use of environmental enrichment and operational conditioning in order to facilitate routine procedures for the animal management. In this scenario, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of conditioning on the welfare of jaguars in captivity, analyzing behavioral and physiological effects through salivary cortisol. Seven jaguars were studied in a Scientific Breeder. There was an increase in behaviors associated with welfare and cortisol during conditioning, possibly related to learning. The increase in behaviors associated with welfare suggests that the technique can contribute to improve the quality of life of these animals in captivity.(AU)

A onça-pintada é o maior felino das Américas e, diante da ameaça de extinção e da redução de áreas naturais, manter a espécie em cativeiro pode ser importante para sua conservação. Essa condição pode levar à redução no bem-estar, especialmente devido à limitação espacial e à carência de estímulos ambientais. Nas últimas décadas, têm sido buscadas técnicas para minimizar os impactos negativos do cativeiro, com crescimento da utilização de enriquecimento ambiental e do condicionamento operante, com o intuito de facilitar procedimentos de rotina do manejo dos animais. Nesse cenário, o presente estudo teve por finalidade avaliar os efeitos do condicionamento sobre o bem-estar de onças-pintadas em cativeiro, analisando-se efeitos comportamentais e fisiológicos por meio do cortisol salivar. Foram estudadas sete onças-pintadas em um criadouro científico. Houve aumento dos comportamentos associados ao bem-estar e do cortisol durante o condicionamento, possivelmente relacionados à aprendizagem. O aumento nos comportamentos de bem-estar sugere que a técnica pode contribuir para melhorar a qualidade de vida desses animais em cativeiro.(AU)

Aquisição de intraverbais em crianças com autismo: efeitos do pareamento de estímulos e respostas ecoicas / Intraverbal acquisition in autistic children: effects of stimulus pairing and echoic responses / Acquisition du comportement intraverbal chez des enfants autistes: effets de l'appariement des stimuli et des réponses échoïques / Adquisición de intraverbales en niños con autismo: efectos del emparejamiento de estímulos y respuestas ecoicas

Resumo O ensino de intraverbais para indivíduos com autismo tem sido realizado, principalmente, através de procedimentos que envolvem reforçamento diferencial. Recentemente, o procedimento de observação de pareamento de estímulos (SPOP) surgiu enquanto alternativa para verificar a emergência de repertórios verbais. O SPOP implica o pareamento de estímulos sem exigir outra resposta que a observação do pareamento. O ecoico tem sido apontado como facilitador na emergência de operantes verbais. O presente estudo comparou, com um delineamento de sondas múltiplas concorrentes com tratamento alternado adaptado, a eficácia do SPOP com um procedimento de apresentação contígua de estímulos com requisição de resposta ecoica na emergência de intraverbais em três crianças com autismo. Observou-se a eficácia do SPOP na indução de intraverbais e verificou-se o papel facilitador do ecoico. Discutem-se possíveis efeitos de interferência dos tratamentos, da extinção de respostas no contexto experimental e da utilização de reforçadores condicionados como parte do SPOP.

Abstract Intraverbals have been taught to individuals with autism primarily through procedures involving differential reinforcement. Recently, Stimulus Pairing Observation Procedure (SPOP) emerged as an alternative to verify the emergence of verbal repertoires. The SPOP consists in the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli and requires only the observation response by the participant. The echoic behavior had been pointed out as a mediator in the emergence of verbal operants. This study compared the efficacy of the SPOP and of a contiguous stimulus presentation procedure with an echoic response requirement in emergence of intraverbals in three children with autism by using a concurrent multiple probe design with an adapted alternating treatment. The results showed the SPOP's efficacy for intraverbals induction and suggested a facilitating role of the echoic. A possible carry-over effect between treatments, extinction in the experimental context and the use of conditioned reinforcers in SPOP are discussed.

Résumé L'enseignement de l'intraverbal chez des individus autistes a été principalement réalisé avec des procédures impliquant le renforcement différentiel. Plus récemment, la Procédure d'Observation de Paires des Stimuli (SPOP en anglais) s'est imposée comme alternative pour vérifier l'émergence de répertoires verbaux. Le SPOP implique l'appariement des stimuli sans exiger d'autre réponse que l'observation des paires. Par ailleurs, l'échoïque a été signalé comme facilitateur de l'émergence d'opérants verbaux. Nôtre étude a comparé, avec un plan expérimental de sondes multiples concurrents et traitements alternés adapté, l'efficacité du SPOP en comparaison à une procédure de présentation du stimulus contigu avec réponse échoïque dans l'émergence du comportement intraverbal chez trois enfants autistes. Nous avons pu observer l'efficacité du SPOP dans l'induction de l'intraverbal ainsi qu'un rôle facilitateur de l'échoïque. Nous discutons les effets possibles de l'interférence entre traitements, de l'extinction de réponses dans le contexte expérimental, et de l'emploi de renforçateurs conditionnés dans le cadre du SPOP.

Resumen La enseñanza de intraverbales a autistas se ha realizado principalmente a través de procedimientos con refuerzo diferencial. Más recientemente, el procedimiento de observación de emparejamiento de estímulo (POEE) surgió como alternativa para verificar la emergencia de repertorios verbales. El POEE implica el emparejamiento de estímulos, sin exigir otra respuesta que la observación del emparejamiento. El ecoico se considera facilitador en la emergencia de operantes verbales. Este estudio comparó, desde un delineamiento de sondas múltiples con tratamiento alternado adaptado, la eficacia del POEE con un procedimiento de presentación de estímulo contiguo solicitante de respuesta ecoica en la emergencia de intraverbales en tres niños autistas. El POEE fue eficaz en la inducción de intraverbales, y el ecoico tuvo un papel facilitador. Se discuten los posibles efectos de interferencia de los tratamientos, de la extinción de respuestas en el contexto experimental y de la utilización de reforzadores condicionados como parte del POEE.

Grupo musical como contexto para promoção do desenvolvimento positivo de adolescentes / Musical groups as the context for promoting the positive development of adolescents / Grupo musical como contexto para promoción del desarrollo positivo de adolescentes

Este artigo traz os resultados de uma pesquisa que teve como principal objetivo investigar se, e como, o Programa Música Viva, realizado em uma cidade do estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil, promove o desenvolvimento positivo de adolescentes que se encontram em situação de vulnerabilidade social. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo, fundamentado nos pressupostos da bioecologia do desenvolvimento humano proposta por Bronfenbrenner e na teoria do Desenvolvimento Positivo de Lerner. Os procedimentos metodológicos utilizados na investigação incluíram observação participante, diário de campo, entrevista semiestruturada e análise de conteúdo. Os resultados mostraram que o programa favorece o desenvolvimento positivo dos sujeitos, uma vez que, ao oferecer-lhes aulas gratuitas de instrumentos musicais, oportuniza a esses jovens o acesso à cultura e ao lazer e, assim, possibilidades mais amplas de exercerem suas cidadanias, mudarem suas trajetórias de vida e se desenvolverem de maneira saudável.(AU)

This article provides the results of a study that aimed to investigate whether - and how - the program Música Viva , carried out in a city of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, promotes the positive development of socially vulnerable adolescents. It is a qualitative study grounded on the presuppositions of the Bioecological Model of Human Development, proposed by Bronfenbrenner, and on Lerner's Positive Youth Development Theory. The methodological procedures used in the investigation were participatory observation, field diary, semi-structured interview and content analysis. The results showed that the program fosters subjects' positive development: by offering them free musical instrument lessons, it enables them to have access to culture and leisure. Therefore, the program provides broader possibilities for youths to exercise their citizenship, change their life trajectories, and develop in a healthy way.(AU)

Este artículo muestra los resultados de un estudio cuyo principal objetivo fue investigar si, y de qué manera, el programa Música Viva, realizado en una ciudad del Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil, promueve el desarrollo positivo de adolescentes que se encuentran en situación de vulnerabilidad social. Se trata de un estudio cualitativo, basado en las presuposiciones de la bioecología del Desarrollo Humano propuesta por Bronfenbrenner y en la teoría del Desarrollo Positivo de Lerner. Los procesamientos metodológicos utilizados en la investigación fueron: observación participativa, diario de campo, entrevista semiestructurada y análisis de contenido. Los resultados mostraron que el programa favorece el desarrollo positivo de los sujetos, puesto que, al ofrecerles clases gratis de instrumentos musicales, ofrece a esos jóvenes la oportunidad del acceso a la cultura y al ocio, así como posibilidades más amplias de que ejerzan su ciudadanía, cambien sus trayectorias de vida y se desarrollen de manera saludable.(AU)

Orientação parental para insônia infantil em irmãos gêmeos: um relato de caso / Parental guidance for childhood insomnia in twins: a case report / Orientación parental para el insomnio infantil en hermanos gemelos: un informe de caso

Resumo A intervenção comportamental, por meio da orientação parental, vem alcançando resultados positivos no manejo da insônia em crianças. Contudo, questiona-se a efetividade de tais intervenções em irmãos gêmeos, pelo fato de os pais partilharem os cuidados de duas crianças da mesma idade e nível de desenvolvimento. O objetivo deste estudo é apresentar um relato de caso de intervenção comportamental para insônia infantil em irmãos gêmeos por meio de um programa dirigido aos pais e verificar o efeito da intervenção no sono e comportamentos diurnos das crianças. A mãe dos gêmeos foi orientada quanto as técnicas de extinção e reforço positivo no manejo do problema de sono infantil. Os resultados demonstraram que depois da intervenção houve melhora nos hábitos de sono, na qualidade do sono e nos comportamentos internalizantes e externalizantes das crianças. Os achados apresentados neste estudo mostraram os efeitos positivos que a intervenção baseada na aprendizagem operante teve sobre o sono e o comportamento infantil. Este aspecto ressalta a importância de uma inserção maior da questão do sono na Psicologia, a partir de práticas preventivas e interventivas.

Abstract Behavioral intervention by means of parental guidance has been achieving positive results in the management of insomnia in children. However, the effectiveness of such interventions in twins is questioned because parents share the care of two children of the same age and level of development. This is a case report of behavioral intervention for childhood insomnia in twins through a program for parents. The objective of this study is to analyze the effect of such intervention on children's sleep and daytime behaviors. The mother of the twins was instructed on the techniques of extinction and positive reinforcement in the management of children's sleep problems. The results showed that after the intervention there was an improvement in the children's sleep habits, sleep quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors. The findings of this case report show the positive effects that an intervention based on operant learning had on children's sleep and behavior. This highlights the importance of a greater inclusion of issues related to sleep in psychological studies based on preventive and intervention practices.

Resumen La intervención comportamental, por medio de la orientación parental, viene alcanzando resultados positivos en el manejo del insomnio en niños. Sin embargo, se cuestiona la efectividad de tales intervenciones en hermanos gemelos, por el hecho de que los padres comparten los cuidados de dos niños de la misma edad y nivel de desarrollo. El objetivo de este estudio es presentar un relato de caso de intervención comportamental para insomnio infantil en hermanos gemelos por medio de un programa dirigido a los padres y verificar el efecto de la intervención en el sueño y comportamientos diurnos de los niños.. La madre de los gemelos fue orientada en cuanto a las técnicas de extinción y refuerzo positivo en el manejo del problema del sueño infantil. Los resultados demostraron que después de la intervención hubo mejoría en los hábitos de sueño, en la calidad del sueño y en los comportamientos internalizantes y externalizantes de los niños. Los hallazgos presentados en este estudio mostraron los efectos positivos que la intervención basada en el aprendizaje operante tuvo sobre el sueño y el comportamiento infantil. Este aspecto resalta la importancia de una inserción mayor de la cuestión del sueño en la psicología, a partir de prácticas preventivas e interventivas.

Epileptic Seizure Due to Disulfiram Treatment / 가정의학회지

Disulfiram has been used for the treatment of alcohol dependence for nearly 65 years and is approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It causes negative reinforcement by accumulating toxic acetaldehyde due to irreversible inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase. Disulfiram has very few side effects when taken without alcohol. Epileptic seizure induction is a rare side effect in therapeutic doses, and its mechanism is unknown. We present a patient with a single epileptic seizure which was thought to be due to disulfiram used in the treatment of alcohol dependence. We did not find it ethical to administer disulfiram again because the patient discontinued alcohol use and was afraid of epileptic seizures.

Evaluating the use of programmed reinforcement in a correction procedure with children diagnosed with autism

Abstract Background: Procedures that reduce errors while learning a repertoire play an important role in Applied Behavior Analysis for people with autism due to the detrimental effects that excessive exposure to error may have on learning. Previous studies have investigated the effects of correction procedures that require active student response after a trial with error. Some intervention manuals recommend against reinforcing responses after correction to prevent the establishment of prompt dependence. This study directly investigated the effect of reinforcement after an active-response correction procedure during tact training in four children with autism. An echoic-to-tact training procedure was used to train tacts. A "no reinforcement after correction" (NRC) condition was compared to a "reinforcement after correction" (RC) condition, using an adapted alternated treatments design. Results: All participants needed less correction trials in RC than in NRC, and considering all 26 sessions in which both training procedures were implemented, participants' performance was higher with RC than without in 17 sessions and was the same in 3 sessions. Conclusions: We discuss the effectiveness of reinforcing correct responding after an active-response correction procedure, the absence of prompt dependence, and the implications of better correction procedures for applied settings.

Reinforcement omission effects in rats with bilateral lesions in the substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area

Reinforcement omission effects (ROEs) are characterized by higher response rates after reinforcement omission than after reinforcement delivery. This pattern of behavior is interpreted in terms of motivational and attentional processes. Recent studies from our laboratory have shown that the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex are involved in ROE modulation. Also, the literature has demonstrated a role of other areas such as substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in processes related to surprising events, such as prediction error and presentation or omission of an event (exteroceptive stimulus and reinforcement). Since these structures send projections to areas related to ROE modulation such as the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex, the objective of the present study was to determine whether the SNc and VTA also integrate the circuit involved in ROE modulation. Rats were trained on a fixed-interval 12 s with limited-hold 6 s signaled schedule of reinforcement (Pre-lesion training). After acquisition of stable performance, the rats received bilateral neurotoxic lesions of the SNc (Experiment 1) and VTA (Experiment 2). Following postoperative recovery, the rats were submitted to two refresher sessions (Post-lesion training). Subsequently, the training was changed from a 100 to a 50% schedule of reinforcement (Post-lesion testing). In both experiments, the results showed that there was no difference in performance between sham rats and rats with bilateral lesions of the SNc or the VTA.

A 12-Week Multi-Domain Lifestyle Modification to Reduce Depressive Symptoms in Older Adults: A Preliminary Report

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare the effectiveness of usual care management (UCM) and a newly-developed lifestyle modification with contingency management (LMCM) for geriatric depressive symptoms in the community. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial was conducted in 93 older adults with major depressive disorder at community mental health centers. A 12 week multi-domain LMCM was developed by providing positive reinforcement using ‘gold medal stickers’ as a symbolic incentive to motivate their participation and adherence. Participants were allocated to LMCM (n=47) and UCM (n=46) groups. They were then subjected to the 12 week treatment. Effects of the two intervention methods on Geriatric Depression Scale were determined using mixed model analysis. RESULTS: Participants in the LMCM group had greater decline in GDS score per month than participants in the UCM group after adjusting for age, sex, years of education, living alone, and MMSE scores at baseline examination [coefficient for GDS score (95% CI): -1.08 (-1.51, -0.65), p < 0.001, reference: UCM group]. CONCLUSION: LMCM is safe and easy to use with a low cost. LMCM is suitable as psychosocial intervention for older adults with depressive symptoms in the community.

Efeito de regras inacuradas e monitoramento sobre desempenhos em programas de reforços / Effect of inaccurate rules and monitoring on schedules of reinforcements performances

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o efeito do monitoramento sobre a taxa de respostas na presença de regras inacuradas. Seis universitários foram expostos a um programa de reforço múltiplo Intervalo Fixo (FI) FI e, depois, a um programa de reforço múltiplo Extinção (EXT) EXT. O experimentador estava presente (i.e., monitoramento) em um dos componentes do múltiplo e não estava presente no outro. Antes das sessões, todos os participantes receberam, por escrito, a regra inacurada "pressione o botão rapidamente". Cada sessão teve a duração de 10 minutos. Os participantes emitiram taxas de respostas altas e não diferenciadas entre os componentes com ou sem monitoramento durante todo o experimento. Uma discussão dos resultados em termos de uma abordagem selecionista é realizada. (AU)

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of monitoring on response rates in the presence of inaccurate rules. Six undergraduate students were exposed to an Fixed Interval (FI) FI multiple reinforcement schedule and then to an Extinction (EXT) EXT multiple reinforcement schedule. The experimenter was present (i.e., monitoring) during only one of the multiple-schedule components. Before sessions, participants received the written, inaccurate rule "press the button quickly". Sessions lasted for 10 minutes. Each participant emitted high response rates that were non-differential between components with or without monitoring. A discussion in terms of a selectionist approach is carried out. (AU)

Efeitos de histórias experimentais e de justificativas sociais sobre o comportamento de seguir regras / Effects of experimental stories and social justifications on rule following behavior

Este estudo avaliou o efeito de justificativas sobre o comportamento de seguir regras, quando foi construída uma história de reforço para não seguir regra. Dez crianças foram expostas a um procedimento de escolha segundo o modelo, cuja tarefa era tocar um de dois estímulos de comparação na presença de um estímulo contextual. Nas Condições I e II, as Fases 1, 2 e 4 eram iniciadas com a apresentação de instruções discrepantes das contingências programadas, cujo comportamento de segui-las produzia perda de fichas. Na Fase 3 era apresentada uma instrução correspondente com uma justificativa para seguir a instrução que produzia perda de fichas. A Condição I diferia da Condição II apenas com relação ao tipo de justificativa apresentada na Fase 3. Na Condição I era apresentada uma justificativa para ajudar crianças carentes e na Condição II uma justificativa que envolvia a aprovação do experimentador. O comportamento de nove dos 10 participantes ficou sob o controle da história de reforço para o não seguir instrução e das consequências imediatas produzidas pelo comportamento de não seguir instruções; o comportamento de um participante ficou sob o controle da justificativa para seguir a instrução correspondente.

The effect of justifications on rule-following behavior after a history of reinforcement for not following rules was evaluated. Ten children were submitted to a matching to sample procedure such as the task was to touch one of two comparison stimuli in the presence of a contextual stimulus. In Conditions 1 and 2, the Phases 1, 2, and 4 begun with the presentation of an instruction that was discrepant to the contingencies; following the rule lead to the loss of tokens. In Phase 3 it was presented an instruction corresponding to the contingencies, with a justification for following the instruction that lead to the loss of tokens. The difference of Conditions 1 and 2 was only regarding to the justification presented in Phase 3. The justification presented in Condition 1 was "to help poor children" and in Condition 2 a justification regarding experimenter's approval. The behavior of 9 out of 10 participants was under control of the experimental history of reinforcement for not following instructions and of the immediate consequences produced by the behavior of not following instructions; the behavior of one participant was under control of the justification for following the corresponding instruction.

Efeitos de um marcador temporal sobre respostas de escolha por maior atraso e magnitude do reforço em crianças / Effects of a time marker on responses of choice for further delay and magnitude of reinforcement in children / Los efectos de un contador de tiempo sobre las respuestas de elección por más retraso y magnitud del reforzamiento en niños

O presente experimento verificou se a apresentação de um marcador temporal durante o período de atraso do reforço aumentaria as respostas no componente com maior magnitude e atraso do reforço (autocontrole), diminuindo as escolhas pelo componente de menor atraso e magnitude (impulsividade), em um esquema concorrente. Três valores de atraso do reforço foram investigados. Participaram nove crianças distribuídas em três condições manipuladas no período de atraso do reforço: relógio, não-relógio e blackout. Escolhas entre o componente de autocontrole e impulsividade ocorriam na tela de computador sendo consequencia dos pontos trocados por brindes. Encontrou-se autocontrole na primeira apresentação dos menores valores de atraso no componente de maior atraso, mas não com valores maiores, independentemente da condição em vigor. O marcador temporal não indicou ser uma condição que aumente as respostas de autocontrole. Tais respostas estiveram relacionadas aos valores do atraso.

This experiment aimed to determine whether the presentation of a temporal marker during the delay of reinforcement would increase choice response related to the greater magnitude and delay of reinforcement component (self-control), reducing the choices of the shorter delay and small magnitude component (impulsivity). Three values of delay interval have been investigated. Nine children were assigned to three conditions manipulated in the delay period: clock, no clock and blackout. Choices between self-control and impulsiveness component occurred on the computer screen producing points exchanged for gifts. Self-control was found in the first presentation of the smaller lag values in longer delay component, but not to larger values, regardless of the condition in effect. The time counter has not indicated to be a condition that increases the self-control. Such responses were related to the delay values.

El presente experimento evaluó si la presentación de un contador de tiempo en el período de retraso del reforzamiento aumenta las respuestas del componente con más magnitud y retraso del reforzamiento (auto-control), reducindo la elección del componente con menos retraso y magnitud (impulsividad), en una esquema competidor. Tres tipos de retraso del reforzamiento han sido investigados. Participaron nueve niños asignados en tres condiciones manejadas en el periodo de retraso de refuerzo: con reloj, sin reloj y blackout. Las elecciones entre el componente de autocontrol y impulsividad ocurrieron en la pantalla del ordenador consequenciadas por puntos cambiados después por regalos. Se ha encuentrado auto-control en la primera presentación de los tipos más pequeños de retraso en el componente con más magnitud y retraso del reforzamiento, pero el mismo no ha pasado con los tipos de retrasos más largos, independientemente de la condición en efecto. El contador de tiempo no ha indicado ser una condición de incremento de las respuestas de auto-control. Tales respuestas solo se han relacionado con los tipo de retraso.

Reabilitação da deglutição em pacientes traqueostomizados disfágicos sob ventilação mecânica em unidades de terapia intensiva: um estudo de factibilidade / Swallowing rehabilitation of dysphagic tracheostomized patients under mechanical ventilation in intensive care units: a feasibility study

Objetivo: Avaliar a factibilidade da implantação precoce de um programa de reabilitação da deglutição em pacientes traqueostomizados com disfagia e sob ventilação mecânica. Métodos: Estudo prospectivo realizado em unidades de terapia intensiva de um hospital universitário. Incluímos pacientes hemodinamicamente estáveis e submetidos à ventilação mecânica por pelo menos 48 horas e há no mínimo 48 horas com traqueostomia e nível adequado de consciência. Os critérios de exclusão foram cirurgia prévia na cavidade oral, faringe, laringe e/ou esôfago, presença de doenças degenerativas ou história pregressa de disfagia orofaríngea. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos a um programa de reabilitação da deglutição. Antes e após o tratamento de reabilitação da deglutição, foram determinados um escore estrutural orofaríngeo, um escore funcional de deglutição, e um escore otorrinolaringológico estrutural e funcional. Resultados: Foram incluídos 14 pacientes. A duração média do programa de reabilitação foi de 12,4 ± 9,4 dias, com média de 5,0 ± 5,2 dias sob ventilação mecânica. Onze pacientes puderam receber alimentação por via oral enquanto ainda permaneciam na unidade de terapia intensiva após 4 (2 - 13) dias de tratamento. Todos os escores apresentaram melhora significante após o tratamento. Conclusão: Neste pequeno grupo de pacientes, a implantação de um programa precoce de reabilitação da deglutição foi factível, mesmo em pacientes sob ventilação mecânica. .

Objective: The aim of the present study was to assess the feasibility of the early implementation of a swallowing rehabilitation program in tracheostomized patients under mechanical ventilation with dysphagia. Methods: This prospective study was conducted in the intensive care units of a university hospital. We included hemodynamically stable patients under mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours following 48 hours of tracheostomy and with an appropriate level of consciousness. The exclusion criteria were previous surgery in the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx and/or esophagus, the presence of degenerative diseases or a past history of oropharyngeal dysphagia. All patients were submitted to a swallowing rehabilitation program. An oropharyngeal structural score, a swallowing functional score and an otorhinolaryngological structural and functional score were determined before and after swallowing therapy. Results: We included 14 patients. The mean duration of the rehabilitation program was 12.4 ± 9.4 days, with 5.0 ± 5.2 days under mechanical ventilation. Eleven patients could receive oral feeding while still in the intensive care unit after 4 (2 - 13) days of therapy. All scores significantly improved after therapy. Conclusion: In this small group of patients, we demonstrated that the early implementation of a swallowing rehabilitation program is feasible even in patients under mechanical ventilation. .

Possible benefit of consolidation therapy with high-dose cytarabine on overall survival of adults with non-promyelocytic acute myeloid leukemia

In adults with non-promyelocytic acute myeloid leukemia (AML), high-dose cytarabine consolidation therapy has been shown to influence survival in selected patients, although the appropriate doses and schemes have not been defined. We evaluated survival after calculating the actual dose of cytarabine that patients received for consolidation therapy and divided them into 3 groups according to dose. We conducted a single-center, retrospective study involving 311 non-promyelocytic AML patients with a median age of 36 years (16-79 years) who received curative treatment between 1978 and 2007. The 131 patients who received cytarabine consolidation were assigned to study groups by their cytarabine dose protocol. Group 1 (n=69) received <1.5 g/m2 every 12 h on 3 alternate days for up to 4 cycles. The remaining patients received high-dose cytarabine (≥1.5 g/m2 every 12 h on 3 alternate days for up to 4 cycles). The actual dose received during the entire consolidation period in these patients was calculated, allowing us to divide these patients into 2 additional groups. Group 2 (n=27) received an intermediate-high-dose (<27 g/m2), and group 3 (n=35) received a very-high-dose (≥27 g/m2). Among the 311 patients receiving curative treatment, the 5-year survival rate was 20.2% (63 patients). The cytarabine consolidation dose was an independent determinant of survival in multivariate analysis; age, karyotype, induction protocol, French-American-British classification, and de novo leukemia were not. Comparisons showed that the risk of death was higher in the intermediate-high-dose group 2 (hazard ratio [HR]=4.51; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.81-11.21) and the low-dose group 1 (HR=4.43; 95% CI: 1.97-9.96) than in the very-high-dose group 3, with no significant difference between those two groups. Our findings indicated that very-high-dose cytarabine during consolidation in adults with non-promyelocytic AML may improve survival.

Exclusion performance in visual simple discrimination in dogs (Canis familiaris)

Choices based on exclusion have been investigated in different species because of its emergent nature, leading to evidence of rudimentary symbolic behavior in non-verbal organisms. Simple discrimination procedures provide a simple method to investigate exclusion performance, in which each trial consists of the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli, one with a positive function (S+) and one with a negative function (S-). In exclusion probe trials, an undefined stimulus (UnS) is presented with a familiar S-, and choices based on exclusion may lead to choosing the UnS, excluding the previously known S-. Novelty control trials (S+/UnS) are also conducted to assess the possible preference for the UnS. In this case, if performance is not controlled by novelty, then the subjects must choose the S+ and not the UnS. The present study investigated exclusion performance in visual simple simultaneous discrimination tasks in eight dogs. The results indicated that seven of eight dogs showed evidence of exclusion performance (p < .05). These findings corroborate the literature that shows that dogs are capable of responding by exclusion, suggesting that potentially symbolic behavior may rely on basic behavioral learning and conditioning principles...

Variáveis que podem interferir no seguir regras de participantes flexíveis e inflexíveis / Variables which may interfere in following rules by flexible and inflexible participants

Com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de histórias pré-experimentais sobre o seguir regras, 16 estudantes universitários foram expostos a um procedimento informatizado de escolha segundo o modelo. A tarefa era apontar cada um dos três estímulos de comparação em sequência. Oito participantes, quatro flexíveis e quatro inflexíveis, foram submetidos a cada uma das duas condições de quatro fases. Na Fase 1, a sequência correta era estabelecida por contingências. Reforço para a emissão da sequência correta foi mantido durante as três fases - na Condição 1, o programa de reforço contínuo (CRF) e na Condição 2, a relação fixa de quatro (FR4). Em ambas as condições, a Fase 2 começou com a apresentação de uma regra discrepante, a Fase 3 começou com uma regra correspondente, e Fase 4 começou com uma regra discrepante. Seguindo a regra discrepante não produziu o reforço programado, mas seguindo a regra produzida correspondente reforço. Na Condição 1 (CRF) , os 8 participantes deixaram de seguir a regra discrepante, independentemente de serem ßexíveis ou inßexíveis. Na Condição 2 (FR4), os inßexíveis seguiram e os ßexíveis deixaram de seguir a regra discrepante. Sugere-se que os efeitos de histórias pré-experimentais são modulados por variáveis atuais.

Aiming to evaluate the effect of pre-experimental histories on rule-following, 16 college students were submitted to a computerized matching-to-sample procedure. The task was to point to each of three comparison stimuli in sequence. Eight participants, 4 flexible and 4 inflexible, were allocated to each of two four-phase conditions. In Phase 1, the correct sequence was established by contingencies. Reinforcement to the emission of the correct sequence was maintained during the following three phases - in Condition 1, the continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF), and in Condition 2, the fixed-ratio 4 (FR4). In both conditions, Phase 2 started with the presentation of a discrepant rule, Phase 3 started with a corresponding rule, and Phase 4 started with a discrepant rule. Following the discrepant rule did not produce the programmed reinforcement, but following the corresponding rule produced reinforcement. In Condition 1 (CRF), the 8 participants, flexible and inflexible, stopped following the discrepant rule. In Condition 2 (FR 4), the inflexible participants kept following the discrepant rule and the flexible ones stopped following it. It is suggested that the effects of pre-experimental histories are modulated by present variables.

Content Analysis of Child Rearings of Mothers in Infant and Child Preschool

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the parenting of mothers with infants and preschoolers in an effort to determine types of parenting. METHODS: The 32 participating mothers were interviewed and from the content of the interviews, their parenting was analyzed. Statements were categorized and analyzed according to the selected procedure. RESULTS: The parenting of mothers was classified into positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, including 55 significant statements and 14 categories. Positive reinforcement was categorized as frequent skin contact, giving pleasure, spending a lot of time with children, improving children's self-esteem, being sensitive to children's needs, realistic discipline, developing independence, listening to children, and understanding and respecting children's feelings. Negative reinforcement was categorized as overprotection, inconsistent attitude, negligence, negative educational behavior, and emphasis on obedience. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that systematic education should be provided for mothers to increase their ability to provide good parenting. It is expected that the findings of this study would be useful in the development of efficient educational programs.