Disentangling crucial factors of the pandemic in Brazil: Effect of lockdown restrictions on mental health.

Quarantine and social distance restrictions have been enforced worldwide to reduce the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The effects of these measures on mental health are recognised, but remaining unclear, is whether these effects are a consequence of the virus itself or policies that are enforced to prevent it. The present study investigated the impact of lockdown restrictions on anxiety and depression at two different times in 2020. Data were collected from 118 participants from all regions of Brazil. After easing quarantine restrictions in the second half of 2020, two natural groups were formed. One group included participants who voluntarily remained at home (n = 73). The other group consisted of those who decided to leave home (n = 45). A linear mixed model was used to determine the effects of group and time and their interaction. The McNemar test was used to determine intragroup differences in perceptions and concerns about COVID-19. Logistic regression identified predictors of high and stable depression and anxiety. None of the factors or their interactions was significant. Indicators of depression and anxiety remained stable over time, regardless of whether the participants left home or remained at home. Significantly, a strong and stable agreement with quarantine was found. The participants agreed that COVID-19 was a threat to public health. Political orientation was a predictor of high and stable levels of depression but not anxiety. Participants who self-identified as liberal politically were at a greater risk of developing depression. The results suggest that the lockdown policy did not contribute to disruptions of mental health, which instead was a consequence of the pandemic and virus itself. We also found wide and strong support amongst the participants for lockdown and mandatory stay-at-home policies.

The Lighter Side of Pain: Do Positive Affective States Predict Memory of Pain Induced by Running a Marathon?

BACKGROUND: Memory and in turn, memory of pain is a reconstructive process. This study considers the relationship between time, memory, affective states, and pain induced by running a marathon by investigating the influence of these factors on a participant's memory of pain experienced after a marathon. The following two hypotheses were formulated: 1) participants' recalled-pain of marathon experience is underestimated; and 2) the underestimation of recalled pain would be greater for participants experiencing higher positive affect. METHODS: A longitudinal design was employed to check pain intensities of marathon participants a) at the finish line and b) 6 months following its completion. The sample size was based on a power analysis, and 108 marathonists rated their pain intensities and positive and negative affects at the finish line. From this sample, 58 participants recalled their pain experience of running the marathon 6 months later. Linear models, including computer-based data-mining algorithms, were used. RESULTS: The experienced pain was higher than their recalled pain (t(55) = 3.412, p < 0.01, d = 0.45), supporting the first hypothesis. The memory of pain faded similarly in all participants, which did not directly support the second hypothesis. Further exploratory analysis suggested that negative and positive affective states were related to participants' pain memory; positive affective states appeared to be inversely related to the recall (ß = -0.289, p = 0.039). DISCUSSION: This study shows that time has a significant effect on memory recall and that emotions may also influence the memory of pain. This is the first study that preliminarily showcased the effect of positive affective states on the memory of pain induced by physical exercise.

Associated Factors of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnosis and Psychostimulant Use: A Nationwide Representative Study.

BACKGROUND: Connections between epidemiological findings and children's and adolescents' mental health policies have not been properly made in Brazil, and such nationwide studies are scarce. This epidemiological study (1) estimated the prevalence and predictors of parent-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (ADHD-report), (2) estimated the probable diagnosis and risk of ADHD based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, criteria (ADHD-probable), and (3) estimated current psychostimulant use (ADHD-pst) in a representative nationwide sample of Brazilian school-aged children and adolescents. METHODS: Data were obtained from 7114 school-aged children (49.9% boys) from 87 cities in 18 Brazilian states. Parents and teachers were interviewed using psychometrically sound questionnaires. Data and codes are available. RESULTS: The prevalence of ADHD-report, ADHD-probable, and ADHD-pst were 7.1%, 3.9%, and 1.9%, respectively. The agreement was low between ADHD-probable and ADHD-report (22.6%) and between ADHD-report and ADHD-pst (15.6%). Logistic regression revealed that predictors of all three categories were male gender (odds ratio [OR] = 1.71, 2.32, and 1.96, respectively), divorced parents (OR = 1.47, 1.65, and 1.68, respectively), and below-expectation school performance (OR = 3.1, 13.74, and 3.95, respectively). Socioeconomic status was a significant predictor of ADHD-report, and participants from lower classes were less frequently diagnosed with ADHD than their peers from upper classes (OR = 0.57, 95% confidence interval = 0.37-0.88, P = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS: The present findings provide an accurate description of ADHD in Brazil. We suggest disparities in agreement between report, risk, and psychostimulant use among children and adolescents and discrepancies between socioeconomic classes concerning the prevalence of an ADHD diagnosis.

Aspectos psicométricos de instrumentos neuropsicológicos: revisão conceitual, proposta de interpretação de percentis e classificações

A avaliação neuropsicológica é um procedimento fundamental especialmente a pacientes que possam apresentar suspeita de transtornos neurológicos, psicológicos ou psiquiátricos. Uma de suas finalidades é mapear aspectos do perfil psicológico e comportamental do examinando e, com isso, auxiliar o diagnóstico em saúde mental. Frequentemente, esse processo integra os resultados obtidos por instrumentos de medida e aspectos dinâmicos relacionados à interpretação clínica. No entanto é possível identificar algumas dificuldades relacionadas a esse processo, tais como 1) limitações na compreensão de aspectos psicométricos e estatísticos por parte dos profissionais, 2) a utilização de instrumentos, em contextos clínicos que originalmente foram desenvolvidos para avaliação de trânsito e seleção organizacional e 3) um baixo consenso da relação entre percentil e classificação, o que pode gerar inconsistências entre resultados e avaliações. Posto isso, o presente trabalho é um estudo teórico que revisita conceitos fundamentais em Estatística e Psicometria associados à Neuropsicologia, discute condições em que testes voltados para trânsito e organizações são utilizados em Neuropsicologia e apresenta uma proposta de classificação.

Neuropsychological assessment is a fundamental procedure, especially in cases of suspected neurological, psychological, or psychiatric disorders. One of its purposes is to map aspects of the patient's psychological and behavioral profiles and, with that, contribute to mental health's diagnostic process. This process combines the results obtained by psychometric instruments and dynamic aspects related to clinical evaluation. However, we note some difficulties related to this process, such as 1) limitations in the understanding of psychometric and statistical aspects by the professionals or clinicians; 2) use of instruments developed for Traffic Psychology assessment and personnel selection in industrial and organizational settings; 3) a low consensus on the relationship between percentile and classification or descriptors to scores that represent the performance obtained in the test, which can lead to inconsistencies between results and evaluations. That said, this theoretical study revisits fundamental concepts in Psychometrics and Statistics related to Neuropsychology, discusses the conditions under which contextual-unrelated tests are used in Neuropsychology, and provides a proposal for classification.

Non-verbal intelligence outperforms selective attention in a visual short-term memory test.

Short-term memory is a dynamic psychological process that operates within a network in which non-verbal intelligence and attentional domains are connected. However, no consensus has been reached about which process has the greatest effect on this memory ability, which was the main objective of the present study. A sample of 1448 Brazilian participants (mean age = 26.62 years, standard deviation = 9.97 years; 53.9% females) were collectively tested on pen-and-paper standardized and validated measures of selective (ROTAS-C), alternating (ROTAS-A), and divided (ROTAS-D) attention. They also performed the R1 Non-verbal Intelligence Test and a visual short-term memory test (Memória Visual de Curto Prazo [MEMORE] test). The statistical analyses consisted of a data mining procedure, in which exhaustive automatic selection screening was performed. The results were compared with Corrected Akaike Information Criteria. The linear model met the classic assumptions of ordinary least squares and only included main effects of selective attention (standardized ß = 0.39) and non-verbal intelligence (standardized ß = 0.37) as main predictors (F2,39 = 7.01, p < 0.01, adjusted R2 = 24%). The results are discussed within a cognitive psychology framework.

The development process of a measure of democratic culture in organizations / Processo de desenvolvimento de uma medida de cultura democrática nas organizações / El proceso de desarrollo de una medida de cultura democrática en las organizaciones

BACKGROUND: The development of a psychometric measure for assessing democratic culture in organizations is described. METHODS: Two studies were conducted. A literature review of studies reporting democratic culture instruments was undertaken. Six databases were used within the timeframe of between 2015 and 2020. Four specialists rated the derived items on clarity, relevance, and translation via the content validity coefficient (CVC). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed with 225 individuals and the internal consistency was evaluated by Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: A set of 2,049 articles were obtained in the literature review. The content validity coefficient allowed us to gather 96 items. The EFA achieved a final multidimensional solution formed of 58 items in 6 correlated factors: Citizen Participation, Tolerance and Openness, Organizational Citizenship, Traditionalist Dogmatism, Individualism and Rebellion, and Punitive Authoritarianism. Cronbach's alpha ranged from .59 to .78. CONCLUSION: This article presented several procedures used to develop a new measure of democratic culture in organizations.

Este trabalho visa o desenvolvimento de uma medida psicométrica para avaliação da cultura democrática em organizações. MÉTODOS: Dois estudos foram realizados. No primeiro, uma revisão de literatura com estudos que usaram instrumentos de cultura democrática foi realizada. Seis bases de dados foram usadas entre 2015 e 2020. Quatro especialistas avaliaram os itens derivados quanto à clareza, relevância e tradução por meio do Coeficiente de Validade de Conteúdo (CVC). Uma Análise Fatorial Exploratória (AFE) foi realizada com 225 indivíduos e a consistência interna foi avaliada pelo alfa de Cronbach. RESULTADOS: 2.049 artigos foram obtidos na revisão. O CVC nos permitiu reunir 96 itens. A EFA alcançou uma solução multidimensional formada por 58 itens em seis fatores correlacionados de Participação Cidadã, Tolerância e Abertura, Cidadania Organizacional, Dogmatismo Tradicionalista, Individualismo e Rebelião, Autoritarismo Punitivo. O alfa de Cronbach variou de 0,59 a 0,78. CONCLUSÃO: Este artigo apresentou procedimentos usados para desenvolver uma nova medida de cultura democrática.

OBJETIVO: El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir el desarrollo de una medida psicométrica para la evaluación de la cultura democrática en organizaciones. MÉTODOS: Se realizaron dos estudios: una revisión de la literatura de estudios que informan sobre instrumentos de cultura democrática, en seis bases de datos, en el período de 2015 a 2020, en la cual cuatro especialistas calificaron los elementos derivados según su claridad, relevancia y traducción con base en el coeficiente de validez del contenido (CVC); y un Análisis Factorial Exploratorio (AFE) con 225 individuos en que se evaluó la consistencia interna utilizando el Alfa de Cronbach. RESULTADOS: Se obtuvo un conjunto de 2 049 artículos en la revisión de la literatura; el CVC permitió reunir 96 elementos; la EFA logró una solución multidimensional conformada por 58 ítems en 6 factores correlacionados de Participación Ciudadana, Tolerancia y Apertura, Ciudadanía Organizacional, Dogmatismo Tradicionalista, Individualismo y Rebelión y Autoritarismo Punitivo; y el Alfa de Cronbach osciló entre 0,59 y 0,78. CONCLUSIÓN: Este artículo presentó procedimientos utilizados para desarrollar una nueva medida de cultura democrática.

Non-verbal intelligence outperforms selective attention in a visual short-term memory test

Short-term memory is a dynamic psychological process that operates within a network in which non-verbal intelligence and attentional domains are connected. However, no consensus has been reached about which process has the greatest effect on this memory ability, which was the main objective of the present study. A sample of 1448 Brazilian participants (mean age = 26.62 years, standard deviation = 9.97 years; 53.9% females) were collectively tested on pen-and-paper standardized and validated measures of selective (ROTAS-C), alternating (ROTAS-A), and divided (ROTAS-D) attention. They also performed the R1 Non-verbal Intelligence Test and a visual short-term memory test (Memória Visual de Curto Prazo [MEMORE] test). The statistical analyses consisted of a data mining procedure, in which exhaustive automatic selection screening was performed. The results were compared with Corrected Akaike Information Criteria. The linear model met the classic assumptions of ordinary least squares and only included main effects of selective attention (standardized β = 0.39) and non-verbal intelligence (standardized β = 0.37) as main predictors (F2,39 = 7.01, p < 0.01, adjusted R2 = 24%). The results are discussed within a cognitive psychology framework. (AU)

Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in a Representative Sample of Undergraduate Students in Spain, Portugal, and Brazil / Sintomas de depressão e ansiedade em uma amostra representativa de universitários espanhóis, portugueses e brasileiros

Abstract University students have shown a significant occurrence of depression and anxiety symptoms. This epidemiological work investigated the prevalence of such symptoms in university students in Spain, Portugal, and Brazil, as well as the possible differences according to nationality and gender from a representative sample of three universities (University of Extremadura/Spain, n = 1216; University of Coimbra/Portugal, n = 426, and PUC-Rio, n = 315) in 2015. The results suggest that Brazilian students have a greater manifestation of depression symptoms, especially women, and they also presented greater symptoms of anxiety. No difference was found in the anxiety results between countries. The correlation between depression and anxiety was positive and strong. This study can be of value in social, clinical and political settings.

Resumo Universitários apresentam sintomas importantes de depressão e ansiedade. Este trabalho epidemiológico investigou a prevalência de tais sintomas em acadêmicos da Espanha, Portugal e Brasil, bem como as possíveis diferenças em função da nacionalidade e do gênero a partir de uma amostra representativa de 3 universidades (Universidade de Extremadura/Espanha = 1216; Universidade de Coimbra/Portugal = 426 e PUC-Rio = 315) em 2015. Análises descritivas e inferências indicaram que estudantes brasileiros, em especial as mulheres, apresentam maior manifestação de sintomas de depressão. Elas também apresentaram maior sintomatologia de ansiedade. A correlação entre depressão e ansiedade foi proporcional e forte e não houve diferença na ansiedade entre os países. Esta pesquisa pode ser utilizada em diversas áreas e auxiliar práticas clínicas e políticas públicas.

A elegia da lembrança impossível: dor, memória e afeto em corredores de longa distância / Elegy for the Impossible Memory: pain, memory and affection in long-distance runners

A memória é uma função psicológica plástica e dinâmica. Além disso, há uma estreita ligação entre eventos mnêmicos e estados afetivos. Esse trabalho objetivou estudar o efeito do tempo e dos afetos positivos e negativos na evocação de uma memória de dor ocasionada por uma corrida de longa distância e de confirmar a estrutura fatorial da Escala de Afetos Positivos e Negativos (PANAS). Em 2016, 138 corredores de 21,1 e 42,2 km foram avaliados com a Escala Numérica de Dor (NRS) e a PANAS em dois momentos:imediatamente após completarem a corrida e 6 meses depois. Não houve diferença entre o relato imediato após a corrida e a evocação da magnitude dador (t(57) = ,136, p = ,446). Todos os participantes tiveram mais afetivos positivos do que negativos ao completar a corrida (t(135) = 32,19, p < ,001) e os afetos positivos contribuíram como preditores significativos e inversamente associados à recordação da dor (b = -,118, p = ,02). A PANAS apresentou ajustes adequados na Análise Fatorial Confirmatória (χ2(169) = 306; p < ,001; TLI = ,921;CFI = .929; RMSEA = ,081), mostrando-se apropriada para o uso em situações como essa. Os resultados oferecem mais evidências sobre a distorção que a memória apresenta e valida o PANAS para uso em situações similares à desta pesquisa.(AU)

Memory is a dynamic and plastic psychological function. In addition, there is aclose connection between memory events and affective states. This study aimedto study the effect of time and positive and negative affects on the recall of pain memory caused by a long-distance run and to confirm the factorial structure ofthe Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). In 2016, 138 runners of 21.1 and 42.2 km were evaluated with the Numerical Pain Scale (NRS) and PANAS intwo moments: immediately after completing the race and 6 months later. There was no difference between the immediate post-race report and the recall ofpain magnitude (t(57) =.136, p = .446). All participants reported more positive than negative affect upon completing the activity (t(135) = 32.19, p < .001) and positive affects contributed as significant predictor and inversely associated with recall of pain (b = -, 118 , p = 0.02). The PANAS had adequate goodness-offit values in the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (χ2 (169) = 306; p < .001; TLI =.921; CFI = .929; RMSEA = .081), proving to be appropriate for use in suchsituations. The results provide more evidence about the distortion phenomenon that memory presents and validate the PANAS for use in similar situations to this research.(AU)

A elegia da lembrança impossível: dor, memória e afeto em corredores de longa distância / Elegy for the Impossible Memory: pain, memory and affection in long-distance runners

A memória é uma função psicológica plástica e dinâmica. Além disso, há uma estreita ligação entre eventos mnêmicos e estados afetivos. Esse trabalho objetivou estudar o efeito do tempo e dos afetos positivos e negativos na evocação de uma memória de dor ocasionada por uma corrida de longa distância e de confirmar a estrutura fatorial da Escala de Afetos Positivos e Negativos (PANAS). Em 2016, 138 corredores de 21,1 e 42,2 km foram avaliados com a Escala Numérica de Dor (NRS) e a PANAS em dois momentos:imediatamente após completarem a corrida e 6 meses depois. Não houve diferença entre o relato imediato após a corrida e a evocação da magnitude dador (t(57) = ,136, p = ,446). Todos os participantes tiveram mais afetivos positivos do que negativos ao completar a corrida (t(135) = 32,19, p < ,001) e os afetos positivos contribuíram como preditores significativos e inversamente associados à recordação da dor (b = -,118, p = ,02). A PANAS apresentou ajustes adequados na Análise Fatorial Confirmatória (χ2(169) = 306; p < ,001; TLI = ,921;CFI = .929; RMSEA = ,081), mostrando-se apropriada para o uso em situações como essa. Os resultados oferecem mais evidências sobre a distorção que a memória apresenta e valida o PANAS para uso em situações similares à desta pesquisa

Memory is a dynamic and plastic psychological function. In addition, there is aclose connection between memory events and affective states. This study aimedto study the effect of time and positive and negative affects on the recall of pain memory caused by a long-distance run and to confirm the factorial structure ofthe Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). In 2016, 138 runners of 21.1 and 42.2 km were evaluated with the Numerical Pain Scale (NRS) and PANAS intwo moments: immediately after completing the race and 6 months later. There was no difference between the immediate post-race report and the recall ofpain magnitude (t(57) =.136, p = .446). All participants reported more positive than negative affect upon completing the activity (t(135) = 32.19, p < .001) and positive affects contributed as significant predictor and inversely associated with recall of pain (b = -, 118 , p = 0.02). The PANAS had adequate goodness-offit values in the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (χ2 (169) = 306; p < .001; TLI =.921; CFI = .929; RMSEA = .081), proving to be appropriate for use in suchsituations. The results provide more evidence about the distortion phenomenon that memory presents and validate the PANAS for use in similar situations to this research

Inhibitory mechanisms involved in Stroop-matching and stop-signal tasks and the role of impulsivity.

Stroop-like and stop-signal tasks are commonly used to evaluate "inhibition", a multifaceted concept fundamental to better understanding of executive functions. Both tasks demand inhibitory processes for their execution; the first requires inhibition of an irrelevant attribute, while the second involves the inhibition of a prepotent motor response. Impulsivity and decision-making represent two other factors that could be associated to executive control and to inhibitory dyscontrol. In this study we developed a behavioral protocol combining the Stroop-matching (a variation of the classic Stroop task) and the stop-signal tasks to investigate possible interactions between the inhibitory mechanisms involved in both tasks. Moreover, we searched for associations between behavioral performance of healthy participants, and self-reported impulsivity and decision-making processes assessed by the BIS-11 scale and IGT, respectively. Our results showed that the primary-task reaction time in the Stroop-matching task influenced the ability to inhibit motor responses in the stop-signal task. Moreover, impulsiveness scores (but not decision-making) were associated to behavioral performance. Importantly, motor and attentional impulsiveness correlated differently to performance depending on the existence of stop-signal trials in the task. Our protocol revealed promising findings concerning the interaction between different inhibitory processes and their association with impulsivity levels.

Order of stimulus presentation modulates interference in Stroop matching tasks: a reaction time study / Ordem de apresentação de estímulos modula interferências em testes Stroop-pareado: um estudo de tempo de reação / Orden de presentación de estímulos modula interferencias en testes Stroop-pareado: un estudio de tiempo de reacción

In the classic Stroop effect, the time spent to name the color of an incon­gruent stimulus (GREEN in blue) is longer than the time necessary to name the color of a congruent stimulus (BLUE in blue). In the “Stroop matching task”, volunteers are instructed to compare attributes of two stimuli, in which one of them is necessarily a Stroop stimulus. Our aim was to investigate whether the order of stimulus presentation can explain some contradictory results and reveal the imposition of high-order cognitive resources in conflict resolution. Our results confirmed that the strategy adopted in the task depended on the order in which stimuli were presented. In the “Stroop-Bar” order, using the interval between stimuli to solve the conflict inherent to the Stroop stimulus is possible, which is otherwise not possible in the “Bar-Stroop” order. However, these strategies cannot explain the discrepancy in the results reported in the literature.

No teste Stroop clássico, o tempo gasto para nomear a cor de um estímulo incongruente (VERDE em azul) é maior que o necessário para nomear a cor de um estímulo congruente (AZUL em azul). No teste Stroop-Pareado (Stroop matching task), voluntários são instruídos a comparar atributos de dois estímulos, sendo um deles, necessariamente, um estímulo Stroop. Nosso objetivo foi investigar se a ordem de apresentação dos estímulos pode explicar resultados contraditórios e revelar a imposição de recursos de alta ordem na solução de conflitos. Nossos resultados confirmam que a estratégia adotada para desempenhar a tarefa depende da ordem na qual os estímulos foram apresentados. Na ordem “Stroop-Barra”, é possível usar o intervalo entre os estímulos para solucionar o conflito inerente ao estímulo Stroop, o que não é possível na ordem “Barra-Stroop”. No entanto, essas estratégias não conseguem explicar a discrepância de resultados observados na literatura.

En la tarea Stroop clásica, el tiempo utilizado para nombrar el color de un estímulo incongruente (VERDE en azul) es más grande que lo necesario para nombrar el color de un estímulo congruente (AZUL en azul). En una tarea Stroop de comparación (Stroop matching task), voluntarios son instruidos a comparar atributos de dos estímulos, uno de ellos siendo necesariamente un estímulo Stroop. Nuestro objetivo fue investigar si el orden de presentación de los estímulos puede explicar algunos resultados contradictorios y revelar la imposición de recursos de alto orden en la solución­ de conflictos. Nuestros resultados confirman que la estrategia adoptada en la tarea depende del orden en el cual los estímulos fueran presentados. En el orden “Stroop-Barra” es posible utilizar el intervalo entre los estímulos para solucionar el conflicto inherente al estímulo Stroop, lo que no es posible en el orden “Barra-Stroop”. Sin embargo, esas estrategias no consiguen explicar la discrepancia de los resultados observados en la literatura.