Population genetic structure and morphological diversity of Cruzia tentaculata (Nematoda: Ascaridida), a parasite of marsupials (Didelphinae), along the Atlantic Forest on the eastern coast of South America.

Cruzia tentaculata is a helminth parasite of marsupials and has a wide geographic distribution from Mexico to Argentina. The aim of this study was to analyse the genetic population structure of this nematode along the Atlantic Forest biome. Cruzia tentaculata specimens were recovered from Didelphis aurita, Didelphis albiventris and Philander quica in 9 localities. Morphological and morphometric data were investigated for phenotypic diversity among localities and hosts using multivariate discriminant analysis of principal components. Phylogenetic relationships of C. tentaculata were determined using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. The population structure was analysed by fixation indices, molecular variance analysis, Tajima's D and Fu's Fs neutrality tests, Mantel tests and Bayesian clustering analysis. A higher significant morphometric difference for males was observed between localities. In the haplogroup networks, 2 groups were recovered, separating locations from the north and from the south/southeast. The morphometric variation in C. tentaculata between different localities was compatible with this north and southeast/south pattern, suggesting adaptation to different ecological conditions. Population genetic analyses suggested a pattern of evolutionary processes driven by Pleistocene glacial refugia in the northeast and southeast of the Atlantic Forest based on the distribution of genetic diversity.

Population genetic structure and phenotypic diversity of Aspidodera raillieti (Nematoda: Heterakoidea), a parasite of Didelphini marsupials in Brazil's South and Southeast Atlantic Forest.

BACKGROUND: The population genetics of parasites may be influenced by host specificity, life cycle, host geographical range, evolutionary history, and host population structure. The nematode Aspidodera raillieti infects different marsupial and rodent hosts in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, implying a gene flow among populations. However, niche diversification of the main hosts of A. raillieti in superimposed areas may provide conditions for population genetic structuring within this parasite species. We examined the genetic structuring of A. raillieti infecting three marsupial species co-occurring along the South and Southeast Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a hotspot of biodiversity. METHODS: We employed morphometric analyses and partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I gene sequences (MT-CO1) to characterize populations via phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses. RESULTS: Among 175 A. raillieti specimens recovered from the marsupial hosts Didelphis aurita, D. albiventris, and Philander quica, we identified 99 MT-CO1 haplotypes forming four haplogroups and four clades in networks and phylogenetic trees, respectively. Clades I and II encompassed parasites of D. albiventris from the South region, clade III comprised parasites of D. aurita from the South and Southeast regions, and clade IV encompassed parasites of D. aurita and D. albiventris from the South and Southeast regions and parasites of P. quica from the South region. High genetic differentiation between clades, with a high fixation index and greater genetic variation in the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), indicated low gene flow between clades. Haplotypes shared among host species revealed a lack of host specificity. A significant correlation in the Mantel test suggested parasite isolation by distance, while there was no evidence of geographical structure between populations. Negative neutrality test values for clades III and IV suggested recent population expansion. Morphometric differentiation between A. raillieti specimens recovered from different host species, as well as from different localities, was more evident in males. CONCLUSION: The genetic structure of A. raillieti populations in the South and Southeast Atlantic Forest resulted from historical events rather than from current geographical distribution or host specificity. We also demonstrate morphometric variation associated with host species and localities, suggesting phenotypic plasticity to host attributes and to spatial variables.

Testing spatial and environmental factors to explain body shape variation in the widespread Central American Blackbelt cichlid Vieja maculicauda (Teleostei: Cichlidae)

Body-shape variability may respond to the interaction between history and environment, particularly in species whose range includes known biogeographical barriers. Central America has traditionally been regarded to have functioned as a complete land-bridge connecting two continents since the Plio-Pleistocene and as an incomplete one since much earlier. This history has helped shape species diversification and distributions. Vieja maculicauda is a widely distributed cichlid, found throughout most of the Atlantic slope of Central America, across three of the four geological blocks that make up this region and whose borders are known dispersal barriers. We asked whether there is an effect of geologic blocks on body shape of V. maculicauda as determined by geometric morphometric assessment of 151 individuals from across its range. We asked how much variance in body shape is explained by environmental variables. We used a CVA and a MANCOVA to determine whether a relationship between body shape and geologic blocks exists. For testing body shape correlation against geographic and environmental variables, we used a Mantel test. Our results suggest that body shape in V. maculicauda can be segregated by geologic blocks, while the correlation results showed no strong correlation between our sets of variables.(AU)

La variabilidad en forma de cuerpo puede responder a la interacción entre historia y medio ambiente, particularmente en especies de amplia distribución cuyo rango incluya barreras biogeográficas conocidas. Tradicionalmente se ha considerado que Centroamérica ha funcionado como un puente terrestre conectando dos masas continentales desde alrededor del Plio-Pleistoceno y como un puente incompleto desde mucho antes. Esta historia ha ayudado a moldear la diversificación y distribución de especies. Vieja maculicauda es un cíclido de amplia distribución, encontrado a través de la mayor parte de la vertiente Atlántica de Centroamérica, en tres de los cuatro bloques que componen la región y cuyas fronteras son bien conocidas como barreras de dispersión. Nos preguntamos si hay un efecto del bloque geológico en la forma de cuerpo de V. maculicauda, determinado a través de una evaluación de morfometría geométrica de 151 especímenes a lo largo de su distribución. También nos preguntamos cuánta varianza en la forma de cuerpo es explicada por variables ambientales. Utilizamos un AVC y un MANCOVA para determinar si existe una relación entre forma de cuerpo y bloque geológico. Para probar las correlaciones de la forma de cuerpo con variables geográficas y medioambientales utilizamos una prueba de Mantel. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la forma de cuerpo en Vieja maculicauda puede ser segregada por bloque geológico, mientras que los resultados de la correlación no mostraron una correlación fuerte entre nuestros sets de variables.(AU)

Relación entre la composición florística y los nutrientes del suelo en comunidades de palmas del Chocó biogeográfico en Colombia y Ecuador

En ecología una de las preguntas más importantes es: ¿cuáles son los factores ambientales que explican la alta diversidad de especies de plantas en los bosques tropicales? En este trabajo, se estudiaron las comunidades de palmas y su relación con los nutrientes del suelo en dos localidades del Chocó biogeográfico. Específicamente, se investigó: (1) cómo varían los nutrientes del suelo entre las dos localidades; (2) cuál es la relación entre los nutrientes del suelo y la composición florística de palmas; (3) cuáles son los nutrientes más importantes que explican la variación en la composición florística de las comunidades de palmas; y (4) cómo varía la abundancia de las especies dominantes de sotobosque y de dosel a lo largo del gradiente de concentración de los nutrientes más importantes. Se realizaron 20 transectos de 500 x 5 m (5 ha), en los cuales se identificaron y contaron todos los individuos de palmas en sus diferentes estadios de crecimiento. Las muestras de suelo se tomaron en cada uno de los transectos a los 0 , 250 y 500 m. Los cationes (Al, Ca, Mg, K, P) se extrajeron con la técnica Mehlich-III y las concentraciones se analizaron con espectrometría de emisión con plasma de acoplamiento inductivo (ICP-OES). La concentración de macronutrientes se relacionó con la composición florística mediante el test de Mantel, el test parcial de Mantel, regresiones lineales y escalamiento multidimensional no métrico (NMDS). Se encontraron 9 158 individuos y 33 especies de palmas en las 5 ha cubiertas por los transectos. La composición florística presentó una correlación positiva y significativa con los nutrientes del suelo (rM = 0.63-0.69) y con la distancia geográfica entre los transectos (rM = 0.71-0.75), mientras que las variables edáficas mostraron una alta correlación con la distancia geográfica (rM = 0.72). Asimismo, se encontró una débil relación significativa entre la fertilidad del suelo y la abundancia de palmas de sotobosque, pero ninguna con las palmas del dosel. Nuestros resultados demuestran que los suelos juegan un papel importante en la composición de las comunidades de palmas a escalas locales en la región del Chocó, y que los suelos más pobres y ricos en fósforo presentan la mayor diversidad de palmas.

One of the most important questions in ecology is: which are the environmental factors that explain the high plant diversity of tropical forests? We studied the floristic composition of palm communities and their relationship to soil nutrients in two localities of the Chocó region to understand (1) how soil nutrients vary between the two localities; (2) what is the relationship between soil nutrients and palm floristic composition; (3) what are the most important nutrients that explain the variation in floristic composition of palm communities; and (4) how does the abundance of the most exuberant understory and canopy palm species vary along the concentration gradient of the most important nutrients? We established 20 transects (5 x 500 m) and identified all palm individuals of all growth stages. Soil samples were taken at each transect at the beginning, middle, and end. Macronutrients (Al, Ca, Mg, K, P) were extracted with the Mehlich-III technique and their concentrations were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). We used Mantel test, partial Mantel tests, linear regressions, and non-metric multidimensional scaling to determine if the concentration of nutrients was related to the floristic composition. We found a total of 9 158 individuals and 33 species of palms in the 5 ha covered by our transects. Floristic composition had a positive and significant correlation with soil nutrients (rM = 0.63-0.69) and with geographical distance between transects (rM= 0.71-0.75), whereas the soil nutrients were highly correlated with geographical distance (rM = 0.72). We also found a small, yet significant, relationship between soil fertility and the abundance of understory palms, but no relationship with canopy palms. Our results demonstrate for the first time that soils play an important role in the composition of palm communities at local scales in the Chocó region, and that infertile and phosphorus-rich soils have the highest palm diversity.

Discriminating the effects of phylogenetic hypothesis, tree resolution and clade age estimates on phylogenetic signal measurements.

Understanding how species traits evolved over time is the central question to comprehend assembly rules that govern the phylogenetic structure of communities. The measurement of phylogenetic signal (PS) in ecologically relevant traits is a first step to understand phylogenetically structured community patterns. The different methods available to estimate PS make it difficult to choose which is most appropriate. Furthermore, alternative phylogenetic tree hypotheses, node resolution and clade age estimates might influence PS measurements. In this study, we evaluated to what extent these parameters affect different methods of PS analysis, and discuss advantages and disadvantages when selecting which method to use. We measured fruit/seed traits and flowering/fruiting phenology of endozoochoric species occurring in Southern Brazilian Araucaria forests and evaluated their PS using Mantel regressions, phylogenetic eigenvector regressions (PVR) and K statistic. Mantel regressions always gave less significant results compared to PVR and K statistic in all combinations of phylogenetic trees constructed. Moreover, a better phylogenetic resolution affected PS, independently of the method used to estimate it. Morphological seed traits tended to show higher PS than diaspores traits, while PS in flowering/fruiting phenology depended mostly on the method used to estimate it. This study demonstrates that different PS estimates are obtained depending on the chosen method and the phylogenetic tree resolution. This finding has implications for inferences on phylogenetic niche conservatism or ecological processes determining phylogenetic community structure.

Multiple Mantel tests and isolation-by-distance, taking into account long-term historical divergence

Mantel tests of matrix correspondence have been widely used in population genetics to examine microevolutionary processes, such as isolation-by-distance (IBD). We used partial and multiple Mantel tests to simultaneously test long-term historical effects and current divergence and equilibrium processes, such as IBD. We used these procedures to calculate genetic divergence among Eugenia dysenterica (Myrtaceae) populations in Central Brazil. The Nei's genetic distances between pairs of local populations were strongly correlated with geographic distances, suggesting an IBD process, but field observations and the geographic distribution of the samples suggest that populations may have been subjected to more complex evolutionary processes of genetic divergence. Partial Mantel regression was used to partition the effects of geographic structure and long-term divergence associated with a possible historical barrier. The R(2) of the model with both effects was 73.3%, and after the partition 21.9% of the variation in the genetic distances could be attributed to long-term historical divergence alone, whereas only 1.5% of the variation in genetic distances could be attributed to IBD. As expected, there was a large overlap between these processes when explaining genetic divergence, so it was not possible to entirely partition divergence between historical and contemporary processes.

COMPARACION FLORISTICA DE DOCE PARCELAS EN BOSQUE DE TIERRA FIRME EN LA AMAZONIA PERUANA

Floristic composition of twelve plots, 25 m by 25 m, was studied in the Peruvian Amazonia in order to investigate if it were possible to use a part of the flora as an indicator of the changes observed in other components of the flora. Floristic similarities among the plots were calculated using six different taxonomic or physiognomic groups: ferns, the families Melastomataceae and Myristicaceae, trees thicker than 2.5 cm diameter at breast hight (DBH), trees between 2.5 cm and 5 cm DBH, and trees thicker than 5 cm DBH. The similarities were used for agglomerati ve classifications of the plots and for analyzing the correlations among the different groups of plants with Mantel's test. The results indicate that floristic changes were similar in all of the groups and therefore every group can potentially be used as an indicator.

Um estudo da composição florística de doze parcelas de 25 m 25 m foi realizado na Amazônia peruana com o objetivo de observar a possibilidade de utilizar uma parte da flora como indicador para as alterações anotadas em outros elementos da flora. As similaridades florísticas entre as parcelas foram definidas usando seis grupos taxonômicos ou fisionômicos diferentes: fetos, as famílias Melastomataceae e Myristicaceae, árvores com diâmetro á altura do peito (DAP) maior a 2.5 cm, árvores com DAP entre 2.5 cm e 5 cm, e árvores maiores a 5 cm de DAP. As similaridades foram utilizadas para classificar as parcelas e para analisar as correlações entre os grupos diferentes de plantas com a prova de Mantel. Os resultados mostram que as alterações florísticas são similares em todos os grupos, e por isso qualquer destes grupos é capaz de servir de indicador.

Comparacion floristica de doce parcelas en bosque de tierra firme en la amazonia peruana

Floristic composition of twelve plots, 25 m by 25 m, was studied in the Peruvian Amazonia in order to investigate if it were possible to use a part of the flora as an indicator of the changes observed in other components of the flora. Floristic similarities among the plots were calculated using six different taxonomic or physiognomic groups: ferns, the families Melastomataceae and Myristicaceae, trees thicker than 2.5 cm diameter at breast hight (DBH), trees between 2.5 cm and 5 cm DBH, and trees thicker than 5 cm DBH. The similarities were used for agglomerati ve classifications of the plots and for analyzing the correlations among the different groups of plants with Mantel's test. The results indicate that floristic changes were similar in all of the groups and therefore every group can potentially be used as an indicator.

Um estudo da composição florística de doze parcelas de 25 m 25 m foi realizado na Amazônia peruana com o objetivo de observar a possibilidade de utilizar uma parte da flora como indicador para as alterações anotadas em outros elementos da flora. As similaridades florísticas entre as parcelas foram definidas usando seis grupos taxonômicos ou fisionômicos diferentes: fetos, as famílias Melastomataceae e Myristicaceae, árvores com diâmetro á altura do peito (DAP) maior a 2.5 cm, árvores com DAP entre 2.5 cm e 5 cm, e árvores maiores a 5 cm de DAP. As similaridades foram utilizadas para classificar as parcelas e para analisar as correlações entre os grupos diferentes de plantas com a prova de Mantel. Os resultados mostram que as alterações florísticas são similares em todos os grupos, e por isso qualquer destes grupos é capaz de servir de indicador.