Climbing mechanisms and the diversification of neotropical climbing plants across time and space.

Climbers germinate on the ground but need external support to sustain their stems, which are maintained attached to supports through modified organs, that is, climbing mechanisms. Specialized climbing mechanisms have been linked to higher diversification rates. Also, different mechanisms may have different support diameter restrictions, which might influence climbers' spatial distribution. We test these assumptions by linking climbing mechanisms to the spatiotemporal diversification of neotropical climbers. A dataset of climbing mechanisms is presented for 9071 species. WCVP was used to standardize species names, map geographical distributions, and estimate diversification rates of lineages with different mechanisms. Twiners appear concentrated in the Dry Diagonal of South America and climbers with adhesive roots in the Chocó region and Central America. However, climbing mechanisms do not significantly influence the distribution of neotropical climbers. Also, we found no strong support for correlations between specialized climbing mechanisms and higher diversification rates. Climbing mechanisms do not strongly impact the spatiotemporal diversification of neotropical climbers on a macroevolutionary scale. We argue that the climbing habit is a synnovation, meaning the spatiotemporal diversification it promotes is due to the sum effect of all the habit's traits rather than isolated traits, such as climbing mechanisms.

Parasitic plant, from inside out: endophytic development in Lathrophytum peckoltii (Balanophoraceae) in host liana roots from tribe Paullineae (Sapindaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Balanophoraceae is one of the most bizarre and biologically interesting plant clades. It groups species with peculiar features that offers an opportunity for investigating several aspects of parasite plant development and morphogenesis. We analysed the development and the mature vegetative body of Lathrophytum peckoltii Eichler, focusing on the formation of the host-parasite interface. Additionally, we analysed how this parasitic interaction causes modifications to the anatomy of Paullinia uloptera Radlk and Serjania clematidifolia Cambess host roots. METHODS: Vegetative bodies of the parasite at different developmental stages were collected while infesting the roots of Sapindaceae vines. Non-parasitized host roots were also collected for comparison. Light, epifluorescence, confocal and scanning electron microscopy were used for the analysis. KEY RESULTS: The initial cells of the vegetative axis divide repeatedly, originating a parenchymatous matrix, which occupies the space from the cortex to the vascular cylinder of the host's root. In the peripheral layers of the matrix, located near the xylem of the host's roots, a few cells initiate the process of wall lignification, originating the parasitic bundle. The vascular cambium of the host's root changes the division plane and becomes composed of fusiform initials, forming the vascular bundle. The vegetative axis presents a dermal tissue similar to a phellem, a parenchymatous matrix and a vascular system with different origins. CONCLUSION: The parasite reproduces by endophytic development, in a manner similar to that observed for endoparasites. The strategy of late cell differentiation could aid the parasite in avoiding early detection and triggering of defence responses by the host. This development causes changes to the host root cambial activity, leading to the establishment of direct, vessel to vessel connection between host and parasite. We associate these changes with the cambium modularity and an influx of parasite-derived hormones into the host cambium.

Wood density relates negatively to maximum plant height across major angiosperm and gymnosperm orders.

PREMISE: Wood density is a crucial plant functional trait related to plant life history strategies. Its ecological importance in small-stature growth forms (e.g., shrubs) has not been extensively examined. Given that hydraulic conduit dimensions vary positively with plant height and that there is a negative relationship between conduits' diameter and wood density, I hypothesized an also negative relationship between wood density and plant height. Knowing that bark and pith proportions are significant in small-diameter stems, I additionally disentangled the contribution of wood, bark, and pith to stem density. METHODS: I determined density in small-diameter stems across 153 species spanning all major angiosperm and gymnosperm orders by considering a diversity of growth forms (trees, treelets, shrubs, vines, and hemiparasites). Stem cross sections were dissected to consider the densities of wood with bark and pith; wood with pith and without bark; wood with bark and no pith; and wood without bark and pith. Secondary growth was also measured. RESULTS: Trees showed similar wood densities as non-self-supporting vines, and both showed significantly less dense wood than treelets, shrubs, and hemiparasites. General comparisons showed that wood was significantly denser than all other tissues, and these differences did not depend on growth form. Wood density was significantly and negatively related to growth rate and pith area proportions but not to bark thickness proportion. CONCLUSIONS: An implicit negative relationship between maximum plant height and stem density emerges as a property of plants likely linked to hydraulic conductive size.

Interspecific anatomical differences result in similar highly flexible stems in Bignoniaceae lianas.

PREMISE: Lianas are intriguing forest components in the tropics worldwide. They are characterized by thin and flexible stems, which have been related to a unique stem anatomy. Here, we hypothesized that the anatomical diversity of lianas, varying in shapes, proportions, and dimensions of tissues and cell types, would result in different stem bending stiffnesses across species. To test this hypothesis, we chose four abundant liana species of central Amazonia belonging to the monophyletic tribe Bignonieae (Bignoniaceae) and compared their basal stems for their anatomical architectures and bending properties. METHODS: Measurements of anatomical architecture and bending stiffness (structural Young's modulus) included light microscopy observations and three-point bending tests, which were performed on basal stems of eight individuals from four Bignonieae species. All analyses, including comparisons among species and relationships between stem stiffness and anatomical architecture, were performed using linear models. RESULTS: Although the anatomical architecture of each species consists of different qualitative and quantitative combinations of both tissues and cell types in basal stems, all species analyzed showed similarly lower bending stiffnesses. This similarity was shown to be directly related to high bark contribution to the second moment of area, vessel area and ray width. CONCLUSIONS: Similar values of stem bending stiffness were encountered in four liana species analyzed despite their variable anatomical architectures. This pattern provides new evidence of how different quantitative combinations of tissue and cell types in the basal stems of lianas can generate similarly low levels of stiffness in a group of closely related species.

Convergent Evolution and the Diverse Ontogenetic Origins of Tendrils in Angiosperms.

Climbers are abundant in tropical forests, where they constitute a major functional plant type. The acquisition of the climbing habit in angiosperms constitutes a key innovation. Successful speciation in climbers is correlated with the development of specialized climbing strategies such as tendrils, i.e., filiform organs with the ability to twine around other structures through helical growth. Tendrils are derived from a variety of morphological structures, e.g., stems, leaves, and inflorescences, and are found in various plant families. In fact, tendrils are distributed throughout the angiosperm phylogeny, from magnoliids to asterids II, making these structures a great model to study convergent evolution. In this study, we performed a thorough survey of tendrils within angiosperms, focusing on their origin and development. We identified 17 tendril types and analyzed their distribution through the angiosperm phylogeny. Some interesting patterns emerged. For instance, tendrils derived from reproductive structures are exclusively found in the Core Eudicots, except from one monocot species. Fabales and Asterales are the orders with the highest numbers of tendrilling strategies. Tendrils derived from modified leaflets are particularly common among asterids, occurring in Polemoniaceae, Bignoniaceae, and Asteraceae. Although angiosperms have a large number of tendrilled representatives, little is known about their origin and development. This work points out research gaps that should help guide future research on the biology of tendrilled species. Additional research on climbers is particularly important given their increasing abundance resulting from environmental disturbance in the tropics.

The molecular control of tendril development in angiosperms.

The climbing habit has evolved multiple times during the evolutionary history of angiosperms. Plants evolved various strategies for climbing, such as twining stems, tendrils and hooks. Tendrils are threadlike organs with the ability to twine around other structures through helical growth; they may be derived from a variety of structures, such as branches, leaflets and inflorescences. The genetic capacity to grow as a tendrilled climber existed in some of the earliest land plants; however, the underlying molecular basis of tendril development has been studied in only a few taxa. Here, we summarize what is known about the molecular basis of tendril development in model and candidate model species from key tendrilled families, that is, Fabaceae, Vitaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Passifloraceae and Bignoniaceae. Studies on tendril molecular genetics and development show the molecular basis of tendril formation and ontogenesis is diverse, even when tendrils have the same ontogenetic origin, for example leaflet-derived tendrils in Fabaceae and Bignoniaceae. Interestingly, all tendrils perform helical growth during contact-induced coiling, indicating that such ability is not correlated with their ontogenetic origin or phylogenetic history. Whether the same genetic networks are involved during helical growth in diverse tendrils still remains to be investigated.

The metabolic effects of mercury during the biological cycle of vines (Vitis vinifera).

Mercury (Hg) is a major environmental pollutant that can be disposed to the environment by human activities, reaching crops like vineyards during irrigation with contaminated waters. A 2-year study was performed to monitor Hg variations during reproductive and vegetative stages of vines after Hg supplementation. Variations were focused on total Hg concentration, the molecular weight of Hg fractions and Hg-proteins associations in roots, stems and leaves. Total Hg concentrations increased during reproductive stages and decreased during vegetative stages. Variations in length of these stages were observed, according to an extension of the vegetative period. Six months post Hg administration, in roots, stems and leaves, initial Hg proteic fractions of 200 kDa were catabolized to 66 kDa fractions according to a transition from reproductive to vegetative stages. However, 24 months after Hg supplementation, the 66 kDa Hg proteic fraction was continuously determined in a prolonged senescence. Accordingly, the identified proteins associated to Hg show catabolic functions such as endopeptidases, hydrolases, glucosidases and nucleosidases. Stress associated proteins, like peroxidase and chitinase were also found associated to Hg. During the reproductive periods of vines, Hg was associated to membrane proteins, such as ATPases and lipid transfer proteins, especially in roots where Hg is absorbed.

Necessidades térmicas de videiras na região da Campanha do Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil / Thermal requirement of vines in the Rio Grande do Sul region Campaign - Brazil

A vitivinicultura, reconhecida por sua importância econômica e social no Rio Grande do Sul, tem ampliado sua fronteira de produção para a região da Campanha. Objetivou-se com o presente trabalho avaliar o comportamento fenológico, bem como a necessidade térmica em graus-dia e a necessidade em dias, de cultivares de uvas finas destinadas à produção de vinhos, quando cultivadas na região da Campanha, local de recente introdução da espécie com caráter econômico. Os dados utilizados foram coletados em um vinhedo comercial, localizado no município de Dom Pedrito - RS, Brasil, durante as safras de 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011 e 2011/2012. Foram utilizadas as cultivares, 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 'Tannat', 'Tempranillo', 'Merlot', 'Gewurztraminer', 'Sauvignon Blanc' e 'Chardonnay'. Os resultados demonstram que as cultivares respondem de forma diferente quanto à necessidade térmica, em Graus-dia (GD), e à necessidade em dias para completar o ciclo, necessitando, em média, respectivamente, 2084 GD e 174 dias para a 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 1937 GD e 166 dias para 'Tempranillo', 1893 GD e 161dias para a 'Merlot', 1793 GD e 156 dias para 'Tannat', 1759 GD e 147 dias para a 'Sauvignon Blanc', 1689 GD e 152 dias para a 'Chardonnay' e 1606 GD e 145 dias para a 'Gewurztraminer'. A maior necessidade térmica é na fase de desenvolvimento do fruto e maturação do fruto e a menor necessidade, na fase de floração.(AU)

The vitiviniculture, recognized for its economic and social importance in Rio Grande do Sul, has increased its production in the frontier of campaign region. The present study aimed to evaluate the phenological behavior, as well as the need for thermal degree-days and the need in days of cultivars of fine grapes intended for production wine, when cultivated in the campaign, local recent in the introduction of this species of economic nature. Data were collected in a commercial vineyard located in Dom Pedrito - RS, Brazil, during the growing seasons of 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/11 and 2011/12. The species cultivated were, 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 'Tannat', 'Tempranillo', 'Merlot', 'Gewurztraminer', 'Sauvignon Blanc' and 'Chardonnay'. The results demonstrated that cultivars responds differently to the need for thermal days to complete the cycle, requiring on average 2084 and 174 respectively for Cabernet Sauvignon, 1937 and 166 for 'Tempranillo', 161 and 1893 to 'Merlot', and 156 to 1793 for 'Tannat', and 147 to 1759 for 'Sauvignon Blanc', and 152 to 1689 for 'Chardonnay' and 145 to 1606 for 'Gewurztraminer'. The greatest need regarding thermal necessities is to fruit development and ripening and less need to flowering stage.(AU)

Necessidades térmicas de videiras na região da Campanha do Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil / Thermal requirement of vines in the Rio Grande do Sul region Campaign - Brazil

A vitivinicultura, reconhecida por sua importância econômica e social no Rio Grande do Sul, tem ampliado sua fronteira de produção para a região da Campanha. Objetivou-se com o presente trabalho avaliar o comportamento fenológico, bem como a necessidade térmica em graus-dia e a necessidade em dias, de cultivares de uvas finas destinadas à produção de vinhos, quando cultivadas na região da Campanha, local de recente introdução da espécie com caráter econômico. Os dados utilizados foram coletados em um vinhedo comercial, localizado no município de Dom Pedrito - RS, Brasil, durante as safras de 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011 e 2011/2012. Foram utilizadas as cultivares, 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 'Tannat', 'Tempranillo', 'Merlot', 'Gewurztraminer', 'Sauvignon Blanc' e 'Chardonnay'. Os resultados demonstram que as cultivares respondem de forma diferente quanto à necessidade térmica, em Graus-dia (GD), e à necessidade em dias para completar o ciclo, necessitando, em média, respectivamente, 2084 GD e 174 dias para a 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 1937 GD e 166 dias para 'Tempranillo', 1893 GD e 161dias para a 'Merlot', 1793 GD e 156 dias para 'Tannat', 1759 GD e 147 dias para a 'Sauvignon Blanc', 1689 GD e 152 dias para a 'Chardonnay' e 1606 GD e 145 dias para a 'Gewurztraminer'. A maior necessidade térmica é na fase de desenvolvimento do fruto e maturação do fruto e a menor necessidade, na fase de floração.

The vitiviniculture, recognized for its economic and social importance in Rio Grande do Sul, has increased its production in the frontier of campaign region. The present study aimed to evaluate the phenological behavior, as well as the need for thermal degree-days and the need in days of cultivars of fine grapes intended for production wine, when cultivated in the campaign, local recent in the introduction of this species of economic nature. Data were collected in a commercial vineyard located in Dom Pedrito - RS, Brazil, during the growing seasons of 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/11 and 2011/12. The species cultivated were, 'Cabernet Sauvignon', 'Tannat', 'Tempranillo', 'Merlot', 'Gewurztraminer', 'Sauvignon Blanc' and 'Chardonnay'. The results demonstrated that cultivars responds differently to the need for thermal days to complete the cycle, requiring on average 2084 and 174 respectively for Cabernet Sauvignon, 1937 and 166 for 'Tempranillo', 161 and 1893 to 'Merlot', and 156 to 1793 for 'Tannat', and 147 to 1759 for 'Sauvignon Blanc', and 152 to 1689 for 'Chardonnay' and 145 to 1606 for 'Gewurztraminer'. The greatest need regarding thermal necessities is to fruit development and ripening and less need to flowering stage.

The behavioural ecology of climbing plants.

Climbing plants require an external support to grow vertically and enhance light acquisition. Vines that find a suitable support have greater performance and fitness than those that remain prostrate. Therefore, the location of a suitable support is a key process in the life history of climbing plants. Numerous studies on climbing plant behaviour have elucidated mechanistic details of support searching and attachment. Far fewer studies have addressed the ecological significance of support-finding behaviour and the factors that affect it. Without this knowledge, little progress can be made in the understanding of the evolution of support-finding behaviour in climbers. Here I review studies addressing ecological causes and consequences of support finding and use by climbing plants. I also propose the use of behavioural ecology theoretical frameworks to study climbing plant behaviour. I show how host tree attributes may determine the probability of successful colonization for the different types of climbers, and examine the evidence of environmental and genetic control of circumnutation behaviour and phenotypic responses to support availability. Cases of oriented vine growth towards supports are highlighted. I discuss functional responses of vines to the interplay between herbivory and support availability under different abiotic environments, illustrating with one study case how results comply with a theoretical framework of behavioural ecology originally conceived for animals. I conclude stressing that climbing plants are suitable study subjects for the application of behavioural-ecological theory. Further research under this framework should aim at characterizing the different stages of the support-finding process in terms of their fit with the different climbing modes and environmental settings. In particular, cost-benefit analysis of climbing plant behaviour should be helpful to infer the selective pressures that have operated to shape current climber ecological communities.

Influência do uso do solo na ocorrência e diversidade de FMAs em latossolo no sul do Brasil / The influence of soil use on the occurrence and diversity of AMFs in a oxisol from southern Brazil

O uso do solo e fatores edáficos podem alterar a ocorrência e distribuição de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares. O objetivo do trabalho foi determinar a influência de diferentes usos do solo na comunidade de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMAs). As áreas analisadas foram de floresta nativa, área de pousio, pastagem intensiva, pastagem extensiva, plantio direto, plantio convencional, pomar de laranja, videira e Eucalyptus dunnii. A partir da coleta de amostras de solo estabeleceu-se um cultivo armadilha com Brachiaria brizantha para a recuperação de espécies de FMAs, conduzida em câmara BOD em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Após três meses do cultivo armadilha, os esporos foram extraídos pelo método de peneiramento úmido e centrifugação em sacarose e identificados por meio de suas características morfológicas. Foram determinadas a abundância de esporos por espécie e por área avaliada, índice de riqueza de Margalef, equitabilidade de Pielou, dominância de Simpson e diversidade de Shannon. Os resultados revelaram a ocorrência de Glomus mosseae, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus clarum, Acaulospora P., e Scutellospora reticulata. O gênero Glomus foi o mais abundante nas áreas analisadas. A abundância de esporos de FMAs é maior no plantio direto. O pH do solo afeta a ocorrência de espécies de FMAs. A floresta nativa apresentou a menor dominância e maior diversidade de espécies de FMAs, quando comparada com as áreas submetidas adiferente uso do solo.(AU)

The soil use and edaphic factors can to change arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi occurrence and distribution. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of different soil uses in the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) community. The areas of native Forest, fallow area, intensive grassland, extensive grazing, no-tillage, conventional tillage, orange orchard, vines and Eucalyptus dunnii were analyzed. From de collection of soil samples was established trap cultivation with Brachiaria brizantha for recovering AMF species that was conducted in camera BOD in casualized lineation, with four repetitions. After three months of trap cultivation, spores were extracted by the method of wet sieving and centrifugation on sucrose and identified by their morphological characteristics. We determined the abundance of spores by species and evaluated area, Margalef richness index, Pielou equitability, Simpson dominance and Shannon diversity. The results revealed the occurrence of Glomus mosseae, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus clarum, Acaulospora sp. and Scutellospora reticulata. The genus Glomus was the most abundant in the areas analyzed. The abundance of spores of AMF is greatest in no-tillage. The soil pH affects the occurrence of AMF species. The native forest showed lower dominance and diversity of AMF species than areas subjected to different soil use.(AU)

Influência do uso do solo na ocorrência e diversidade de FMAs em latossolo no sul do Brasil / The influence of soil use on the occurrence and diversity of AMFs in a oxisol from southern Brazil

O uso do solo e fatores edáficos podem alterar a ocorrência e distribuição de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares. O objetivo do trabalho foi determinar a influência de diferentes usos do solo na comunidade de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMAs). As áreas analisadas foram de floresta nativa, área de pousio, pastagem intensiva, pastagem extensiva, plantio direto, plantio convencional, pomar de laranja, videira e Eucalyptus dunnii. A partir da coleta de amostras de solo estabeleceu-se um cultivo armadilha com Brachiaria brizantha para a recuperação de espécies de FMAs, conduzida em câmara BOD em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Após três meses do cultivo armadilha, os esporos foram extraídos pelo método de peneiramento úmido e centrifugação em sacarose e identificados por meio de suas características morfológicas. Foram determinadas a abundância de esporos por espécie e por área avaliada, índice de riqueza de Margalef, equitabilidade de Pielou, dominância de Simpson e diversidade de Shannon. Os resultados revelaram a ocorrência de Glomus mosseae, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus clarum, Acaulospora P., e Scutellospora reticulata. O gênero Glomus foi o mais abundante nas áreas analisadas. A abundância de esporos de FMAs é maior no plantio direto. O pH do solo afeta a ocorrência de espécies de FMAs. A floresta nativa apresentou a menor dominância e maior diversidade de espécies de FMAs, quando comparada com as áreas submetidas adiferente uso do solo.

The soil use and edaphic factors can to change arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi occurrence and distribution. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of different soil uses in the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) community. The areas of native Forest, fallow area, intensive grassland, extensive grazing, no-tillage, conventional tillage, orange orchard, vines and Eucalyptus dunnii were analyzed. From de collection of soil samples was established trap cultivation with Brachiaria brizantha for recovering AMF species that was conducted in camera BOD in casualized lineation, with four repetitions. After three months of trap cultivation, spores were extracted by the method of wet sieving and centrifugation on sucrose and identified by their morphological characteristics. We determined the abundance of spores by species and evaluated area, Margalef richness index, Pielou equitability, Simpson dominance and Shannon diversity. The results revealed the occurrence of Glomus mosseae, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus clarum, Acaulospora sp. and Scutellospora reticulata. The genus Glomus was the most abundant in the areas analyzed. The abundance of spores of AMF is greatest in no-tillage. The soil pH affects the occurrence of AMF species. The native forest showed lower dominance and diversity of AMF species than areas subjected to different soil use.

Checklist of climbing plants in an Araucaria forest of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil / Florística de trepadeiras em uma floresta de Araucária do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Climbing plants are remarkable components of forests, highly contributing for the diversity and dynamics of communities. Studies focusing on climbing plants are scarce and for many vegetation types little is known about climbing species composition and their traits relevant for dispersal and establishment. The focus of this study is to provide the first floristic inventory of climbing plants in an Araucaria forest of Brazil, describing the dispersal syndromes and climbing mechanisms of species and comparing these traits and species composition patterns with other study sites in Southern Brazil. We found 104 taxa belonging to 33 families, with Asteraceae (22 spp.) and Apocynaceae (14 spp.) being the richest families. Among climbing mechanisms, stem twiner (50 spp.) is the most common, followed by tendril (20 spp.) and scrambler (12 spp.), while in relation to the dispersal syndromes, anemochoric species (65 spp.) are the most relevant followed by endozoochoric (28 spp.). Three new species registries were found for Rio Grande do Sul State expanding their occurrence range towards South Brazil. The comparison of climbers' survey sites showed two sharp groups in relation to species composition and traits proportion, Seasonal and Araucaria/Atlantic forest sites, but with no difference of traits frequency between sites. There is a predominance of stem twiners species in all sites, but the relative difference for tendril species increases in Araucaria and Atlantic forest sites. The Asteraceae and Apocynaceae families were the most relevant, contrasting to Seasonal forests of Southeast Brazil. Interesting patterns can be achieved with a more detailed classification of climbing mechanisms and the results found in this study contributes to enhance the knowledge on climbers' traits and diversity in South Brazil.

Trepadeiras são importantes componentes florestais, contribuindo na diversidade e dinâmica de comunidades vegetais. Estudos focados em trepadeiras são escassos e para muitos tipos vegetacionais pouco se sabe sobre a composição de espécies de trepadeiras e seus atributos relevantes para dispersão e estabelecimento. O foco deste estudo é fornecer o primeiro inventário florístico de plantas trepadeiras em uma floresta de Araucária no Brasil, descrevendo as síndromes de dispersão e mecanismos de escalada das espécies e comparando esses atributos e a composição de espécies com outros sítios no Sul do Brasil. Foram encontrados 104 taxa pertencentes a 33 famílias, sendo Asteraceae (22 spp.) e Apocynaceae (14 spp.) as famílias mais ricas. Dentre os mecanismos de escalada, o tipo volúvel (50 spp.) é o mais comum, seguido por gavinhas (20 spp.) e apoiantes (12 spp.), enquanto em relação ès síndromes de dispersão as espécies anemocóricas (65 spp.) são as mais relevantes seguidas por endozoocóricas (28 spp.). Três novos registros de espécies foram encontrados para o Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, expandindo suas extensões de ocorrência para o Sul do Brasil. A comparação entre sítios evidenciou dois grupos nítidos em relação è composição de espécies e proporção de atributos, sítios em florestas sazonais e nas florestas com Araucária e Atlântica, porém não há diferença na frequência dos atributos entre os sítios. Há uma predominância de espécies volúveis em todos os sítios, entretanto a diferença relativa para espécies com gavinhas aumenta nos sítios de floresta com Araucária e Atlântica. As famílias Asteraceae e Apocynaceae foram as mais relevantes, contrastando com florestas sazonais no Sudeste do Brasil. Padrões interessantes podem ser encontrados com uma classificação mais detalhada dos mecanismos de escalada e os resultados encontrados neste estudo contribuem para aumentar o conhecimento sobre os atributos e a diversidade de trepadeiras no Sul do Brasil.

Trichome structure and evolution in Neotropical lianas.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Trichomes are epidermal outgrowths generally associated with protection against herbivores and/or desiccation that are widely distributed from ferns to angiosperms. Patterns of topological variation and morphological evolution of trichomes are still scarce in the literature, preventing valid comparisons across taxa. This study integrates detailed morphoanatomical data and the evolutionary history of the tribe Bignonieae (Bignoniaceae) in order to gain a better understanding of current diversity and evolution of trichome types. METHODS: Two sampling schemes were used to characterize trichome types: (1) macromorphological characterization of all 105 species currently included in Bignonieae; and (2) micromorphological characterization of 16 selected species. Individual trichome morphotypes were coded as binary in each vegetative plant part, and trichome density and size were coded as multistate. Ancestral character state reconstructions were conducted using maximum likelihood (ML) assumptions. KEY RESULTS: Two main functional trichome categories were found: non-glandular and glandular. In glandular trichomes, three morphotypes were recognized: peltate (Pg), stipitate (Sg) and patelliform/cupular (P/Cg) trichomes. Non-glandular trichomes were uniseriate, uni- or multicellular and simple or branched. Pg and P/Cg trichomes were multicellular and non-vascularized with three clearly distinct cell layers. Sg trichomes were multicellular, uniseriate and long-stalked. ML ancestral character state reconstructions suggested that the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of Bignonieae probably had non-glandular, Pg and P/Cg trichomes, with each trichome type presenting alternative histories of appearance on the different plant parts. For example, the MRCA of Bignonieae probably had non-glandular trichomes on the stems, prophylls, petiole, petiolule and leaflet veins while P/Cg trichomes were restricted to leaflet blades. Sg trichomes were not present in the MRCA of Bignonieae independently of the position of these trichomes. These trichomes had at least eight independent origins in tribe. CONCLUSIONS: The patterns of trichome evolution indicate that most morphotypes are probably homologous in Bignonieae and could be treated under the same name based on its morphological similarity and common evolutionary history, in spite of the plethora of names that have been previously designated in the literature. The trichome descriptions presented here will facilitate comparisons across taxa, allowing inferences on the relationsthips between trichome variants and future studies about their functional properties.

A new Brazilian Passiflora leafminer: Spinivalva gaucha, gen. n., sp. n. (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae, Gracillariinae), the first gracillariid without a sap-feeding instar.

Male, female, pupa, larva and egg of a new genus and species of Gracillariidae (Gracillariinae), Spinivalva gaucha Moreira and Vargas from southern Brazil are described and illustrated with the aid of optical and scanning electron microscopy. A preliminary analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences including members of related lineages is also provided. The immature stages are associated with Passiflora actinia, Passiflora misera and Passiflora suberosa (Passifloraceae), and build mines on the adaxial leaf surface. Initially the mines are serpentine in shape, but later in larval ontogeny become a blotch type. Although the larvae are hypermetamorphic as in other Gracillariidae, there is no sap-feeding instar in Spinivalva gaucha; the larva feeds on the palisade parenchyma, thus producing granular frass during all instars. Pupation occurs outside the mine; prior to pupating, the larva excretes numerous bubbles that are placed in rows on the lateral margins of the cocoon external surface. This is the second genus of gracillariid moth described for the Atlantic Rain Forest, and the second gracillariid species known to be associated with Passifloraceae.

Two new species in the Matelea stenopetala complex (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) from the Guiana Shield and Amazonian Brazil.

Two new species in the Matelea stenopetala complex (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) are described from the Guiana Shield and Amazonian Brazil: Matelea brevistipitata Krings & Morillo, sp. nov. and Matelea trichopedicellataKrings & Morillo, sp. nov. The new species belong to a small group of adaxially-pubescent-flowered taxa within the complex, including Matelea hildegardiana and Matelea pakaraimensis. The new species are described and a dichotomous key is provided.

Requerimientos germinativos de enredaderas características del Chaco Serrano de Córdoba, Argentina / Germinating requirements of common vines from Chaco Serrano of Córdoba, Argentina

Vines are conspicuous elements of floras in different ecosystems. Patterns of distribution and ecology of this group has been studied at regional scales, mainly in tropical areas, but less is known about factors affecting their distribution at smaller scales. In this study, the germinating requirements of common vines from two plant communities (open shrubland and woodland) in xerophytic mountain forests (Chaco serrano) were studied. A total of 21 species were selected and classified as typical of woodland, shrubland, or indifferent. Experimental treatments were three temperature regimes (15-5ºC, 25-15ºC and 35-20ºC), in light (12-12h daily photoperiod) and in continuous darkness. Total germination percentage, the relative light germination (RLG) and germination rate (T50) were recorded. Among results we found that the temperature was the main factor triggering the germination process. No differences in the mean RLG and T50 between woodland and shrubland patches were found. The patterns observed in this work support the idea that, independently of patch type, germination is associated with temperature of the time of the year when most of the rainfall occurs. Germination of the studied species would be responding to macroclimate’s factors (seasonality of climate and rainfall), rather than to a microclimate. This indicates that differences in species composition between patches would not be due to the factors studied, rather than to characteristics of the later stages of the cycle life.

Las enredaderas son elementos conspicuos de la flora de diferentes ecosistemas. Numerosos estudios basados en patrones de distribución y ecología de este grupo de plantas se han realizado a escala regional, se conoce poco sobre los factores que afectan su distribución a nivel local. Se estudiaron los requerimientos germinativos de 21 enredaderas del Bosque chaqueño serrano de Córdoba, las cuales fueron clasificadas en típicas de bosques, matorrales e indiferentes. Se llevaron a cabo experimentos de germinación en tres regímenes de temperatura (15-5ºC, 25-15ºC y 35-20ºC), en luz (12-12hr luz-oscuridad) y oscuridad permanente. Se registró el porcentaje final de germinación, el índice de germinación relativa a la luz (GRL) y la velocidad de germinación (T50). La temperatura fue el principal factor regulador del proceso germinativo. El GRL y el T50 no registraron diferencias entre fisonomías. Los patrones observados apoyan la idea de que la germinación de este grupo de plantas estaría respondiendo a factores macroclimáticos (estacionalidad del clima y las precipitaciones), más que a un microclima (factores asociados a la fisonomía del sitio). La composición diferencial de enredaderas en los parches de bosques y arbustos no estaría explicada por los factores estudiados, sino por características de las etapas posteriores a la semilla.

Phenological behaviour of Vitis rotundifolia cultivars in Pinhais PR / Comportamento fenológico de cultivares de Vitis rotundifolia em Pinhais PR

The aim of this work was to characterize the phenological cycle of nine Vitis rotundifolia cultivars during the 2004/2005 season. The cultivars were Bontiful, Creek, Dixie, Magnolia, Magoon, Noble, Regale, Roanoke e Topsail. The experiment was performed on an orchard implanted in 1999 at the Canguiri Experimental Station of the Federal University of Paraná in Pinhais-PR. The phenology of two adult plants of each cultivar was monitored. The recorded phenological stages were: 1) Dormant bud; 2) Swollen bud; 3) Wool bud; 4) Green tip; 5) Bud burst (first leaf appearance); 6) Two to three leaves unfolded; 7) Five to six leaves unfolded; 8) Fully developed inflorescence; 9) Trace bloom (flowerhoods detached); 10) Full flowering (50% of the flowerhoods fallen); 11) Fruit set; 12) Groat-sized berries; 13) Pea-sized berries; 14) 50% filled berries (beginning to touch berries); 15) Final size; 16) Color change; 17) Berries ripe for harvest; and 18) End of harvesting. A very long phenological cycle was observed when compared to species such as Vitis vinifera and Vitis labrusca. These evaluations allowed us to conclude that: a) there is no difference in the phenological cycle periods between bronze and dark skinned cultivars; b) cultivars presented desuniform wool bud to full flowering cycle, ranging from 25 days ('Regale') to 81 days ('Creek'); c) the cultivar Regale presented the longest cycle (203 days) from full flowering to harvest and the cultivar Creek the shortest (136 days). The evaluated cultivars additionally presented desuniform ripening and a tendency to drop berries.

O objetivo foi caracterizar o ciclo fenológico de nove cultivares de Vitis rotundifolia avaliadas na safra de 2004/2005. As cultivares estudadas foram as seguintes: Bontiful, Creek, Dixie, Magnolia, Magoon, Noble, Regale, Roanoke e Topsail. O trabalho foi realizado em um pomar do Setor de Fruticultura da Estação Experimental do Canguiri da Universidade Federal do Paraná, em Pinhais-PR, sendo que as cultivares foram plantadas em julho de 1999. A fenologia foi observada em duas plantas adultas de cada cultivar. Os estádios fenológicos observados foram os seguintes: 1) Gema dormente; 2) Gema inchada; 3) Gema algodão; 4) Ponta verde; 5) 1ª folha separada; 6) 2 a 3 folhas separadas; 7) 5 a 6 folhas separadas; 8) Inflorescência desenvolvida; 9) Botões florais separados; 10) 50% das flores abertas; 11) Frutificação; 12) Grãos "chumbinho"; 13) Grãos "ervilha"; 14) Meia-baga; 15) Tamanho final; 16) Mudança de cor; 17) Maturação plena; 18) Término da colheita. Constatou-se um ciclo bastante longo das cultivares da espécie estudada, quando comparada a outras espécies, como Vitis vinifera e Vitis labrusca. As avaliações realizadas permitiram concluir que: a) não há diferença do ciclo entre as cultivares de cores branca e tinta; b) as cultivares apresentam grande variação na duração da fase de gema algodão até a inflorescência desenvolvida, variando de 25 dias ('Regale') até 81 dias ('Creek'); c) o período entre o aparecimento da inflorescência e a colheita foi mais longo na cultivar Regale (203 dias) e mais curto na cultivar Creek (136 dias). As cultivares desta espécie apresentam ainda desuniformidade de maturação e elevada degrana.

Phenological behaviour of Vitis rotundifolia cultivars in Pinhais PR / Comportamento fenológico de cultivares de Vitis rotundifolia em Pinhais PR

The aim of this work was to characterize the phenological cycle of nine Vitis rotundifolia cultivars during the 2004/2005 season. The cultivars were Bontiful, Creek, Dixie, Magnolia, Magoon, Noble, Regale, Roanoke e Topsail. The experiment was performed on an orchard implanted in 1999 at the Canguiri Experimental Station of the Federal University of Paraná in Pinhais-PR. The phenology of two adult plants of each cultivar was monitored. The recorded phenological stages were: 1) Dormant bud; 2) Swollen bud; 3) Wool bud; 4) Green tip; 5) Bud burst (first leaf appearance); 6) Two to three leaves unfolded; 7) Five to six leaves unfolded; 8) Fully developed inflorescence; 9) Trace bloom (flowerhoods detached); 10) Full flowering (50% of the flowerhoods fallen); 11) Fruit set; 12) Groat-sized berries; 13) Pea-sized berries; 14) 50% filled berries (beginning to touch berries); 15) Final size; 16) Color change; 17) Berries ripe for harvest; and 18) End of harvesting. A very long phenological cycle was observed when compared to species such as Vitis vinifera and Vitis labrusca. These evaluations allowed us to conclude that: a) there is no difference in the phenological cycle periods between bronze and dark skinned cultivars; b) cultivars presented desuniform wool bud to full flowering cycle, ranging from 25 days (Regale) to 81 days (Creek); c) the cultivar Regale presented the longes

O objetivo foi caracterizar o ciclo fenológico de nove cultivares de Vitis rotundifolia avaliadas na safra de 2004/2005. As cultivares estudadas foram as seguintes: Bontiful, Creek, Dixie, Magnolia, Magoon, Noble, Regale, Roanoke e Topsail. O trabalho foi realizado em um pomar do Setor de Fruticultura da Estação Experimental do Canguiri da Universidade Federal do Paraná, em Pinhais-PR, sendo que as cultivares foram plantadas em julho de 1999. A fenologia foi observada em duas plantas adultas de cada cultivar. Os estádios fenológicos observados foram os seguintes: 1) Gema dormente; 2) Gema inchada; 3) Gema algodão; 4) Ponta verde; 5) 1ª folha separada; 6) 2 a 3 folhas separadas; 7) 5 a 6 folhas separadas; 8) Inflorescência desenvolvida; 9) Botões florais separados; 10) 50% das flores abertas; 11) Frutificação; 12) Grãos chumbinho; 13) Grãos ervilha; 14) Meia-baga; 15) Tamanho final; 16) Mudança de cor; 17) Maturação plena; 18) Término da colheita. Constatou-se um ciclo bastante longo das cultivares da espécie estudada, quando comparada a outras espécies, como Vitis vinifera e Vitis labrusca. As avaliações realizadas permitiram concluir que: a) não há diferença do ciclo entre as cultivares de cores branca e tinta; b) as cultivares apresentam grande variação na duração da fase de gema algodão até a inflorescência desenvolvida, variando de 25 dias (Regale) até 81 dias (Creek

Análise de custos e rendimentos de diferentes métodos de corte de cipós para produção de madeira na floresta nacional do Tapajós

This survey was conducted in the Tapajós National Forest, in the state of Pará, Brazil evaluating the cost and income of four different methods of cutting vines in the course of forest management, looking to log wood production. Each method was conducted in an area of 96 ha by cutting the vines (1) around all commercial and potentially commercial trees (Method M1), (2) only in the area of commercial and potentially commercial tree occurrence (Method M2), (3) around al commercial and potentially commercial trees and toward fall (Method M3), and (4) only around those commercial trees chosen for the first harvest (Method M4). In all variables analyzed, the methods differed statistically.Method M4 which showed the lowest cost (6.35 U.S. $), may be considered the best. In this method, the vine population was partially preserved, which is important ecologically.

Esta pesquisa foi realizada na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós, Pará, e foram avaliados os custos e rendimentos de quatro diferentes Métodos de corte de cipós na condução do manejo florestal, visando à produção de madeira em toras. Cada método foi conduzido numa área de 96 ha e a metodologia consistiu em cortar os cipós em torno de todas as árvores comerciais e potencialmente comerciais (Método M1-Individual), apenas na área de ocorrência de árvores comerciais e potencialmente comerciais (Método M2-Zoneado), em torno de todas as árvores comerciais e potencialmente comerciais e na direção de queda (Método M3-direção de queda) e apenas em torno das árvores comerciais destinadas à primeira colheita (Método M4). Em todas as variáveis analisadas os métodos utilizados diferiram estatisticamente. O método M4, com o menor custo (6,35 US$) e maior rendimento (2,07 ha/hora) é considerado o melhor desta pesquisa. Neste método, a população de cipós é parcialmente preservada, mantendo, assim, sua importante função ecológica na floresta.