Adeno-associated virus perfusion enhanced expression: A commercially scalable, high titer, high quality producer cell line process.

With safety and efficacy demonstrated over hundreds of clinical trials in the last 30 years, along with at least six recent global marketing authorizations achieved since 2017, recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) have been established as the leading therapeutic gene transfer vector for rare, monogenic diseases. Significant advances in manufacturing technology have been made in the last few decades to address challenges with GMP production of rAAV products, although yield, cost, scalability, and quality remain a challenge. With transient transfection processes established as a manufacturing platform for multiple commercial AAV products, there remains significant yield, cost, robustness, and scalability constraints that need to be resolved to enable a reliable supply of rAAV products for global patient access. The development of stable producer cell lines for rAAV products has enabled scalability and, in some cases, improvements in productivity. Herein we describe a novel AAV perfusion-enhanced expression (APEX) process, resulting in higher maximum cell densities in the production bioreactor with a 3- to 6-fold increase in volumetric productivity. This process has been successfully demonstrated across multiple serotypes in large scale cell culture with titers approaching 1 × 1012 GC/mL. The APEX production platform marks a significant leap forward in the efficient and effective manufacturing of rAAV vector products.

Evaluation of the net energy for lactation system and estimation of the energy requirements of dairy cows based on a comprehensive analysis of feeding trials.

Respiration experiments with high-yielding dairy cows in Northern Ireland have shown higher energy maintenance requirements than those used in the requirements standards of, e.g. France, UK, USA and Germany. Therefore, the current net energy for lactation (NEL) system of Germany was tested by comparing measured NEL intake with calculated NEL requirements based on a comprehensive dataset from feeding trials conducted at nine research institutions in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The relationship between NEL requirements and NEL intake is described by the equation: N E L r e q u i r e m e n t s M J / d = 26 . 6 ± 0 . 4 + 0 . 82 ± 0 . 004 ⋅ N E L i n t a k e M J / d w i t h C o e f f i c i e n t   o f   D e t e r m i n a t i o n   R 2 = 0 . 677 , R o o t   M e a n   S q u a r e   E r r o r   R M S E   = 15 . 9   M J   N E L . The equation indicates a systematic over-estimation of NEL requirements in the lower performance range and an under-estimation at higher energy intake levels. A multiple regression analysis was conducted by calculating metabolisable energy (ME) requirements [MJ/d] using metabolic body size (MBS) [kg0.75], milk energy performance (LE) [MJ/d] and body weight change (BWC) [kg/d]: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ME intake ( MEI ) [ MJ ] =0 . 651 ( ± 0 . 004 ) ⋅ MBS+1 . 37 ( ± 0 . 006 ) ⋅ LE + 16 . 6 ( ± 0 . 31 ) ⋅ BWC with R 2 = 0. 717 , RMSE=24 . 0 MJ . These results indicate that the energy maintenance requirements are markedly higher than presumed in the feed evaluation systems commonly in use but confirm the results from Northern Ireland (0.600-0.660 MJ ME/kg0.75 MBS). ME efficiency for lactation is also higher (kL = 1/1.37 = 0.73) than that used in the systems and is also similar to the results of Northern Ireland with 0.64-0.69. The energy contribution of BWC derived by this equation is 12.1 MJ/kg (16.6 · 0.73) and distinctly lower than that of 21-25 MJ/kg presumed by the feeding standards, e.g. in Germany. Further, maintenance requirements were linked to milk yield (energy corrected milk (ECM) [kg/d]), as is practiced in the standard Australian energy system: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ( MEI ) [ MJ ] =0 . 640  + 0 . 0070 ⋅  ECM) ] ⋅ MBS+1 . 12) ⋅ LE + 16 . 7 ⋅  BWC with R 2 = 0. 719 , RMSE=24 . 0 MJ . These results demonstrate that maintenance energy requirements are partly dependent on milk yield. A differentiated analysis by stage of lactation showed that the regressions coefficients for MBS, LE and BWC change with lactation month; however, these findings apply especially to the first lactation months (i.e. in phases of intensive mobilisation).

Treating Rare Diseases in Africa: The Drugs Exist but the Need Is Unmet.

Rare diseases (RD) pose serious challenges in terms of both diagnosis and treatment. Legislation was passed in the US (1983) and in EU (2000) aimed to reverse the previous neglect of RD, by providing incentives for development of "orphan drugs" (OD) for their management. Here we analyse the current situation in Africa with respect to (1) sickle cell disease (SCD), that qualifies as rare in the US and in EU, but is not at all rare in African countries (frequencies up to 1-2%); (2) paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria (PNH), that is ultra-rare in Africa as everywhere else (estimated <10 per million). SCD can be cured by bone marrow transplantation and recently by gene therapy, but very few African patients have access to these expensive procedures; on the other hand, the disease-ameliorating agent hydroxyurea is not expensive, but still the majority of patients in Africa are not receiving it. For PNH, currently most patients In high income countries are treated with a highly effective OD that costs about $400,000 per year per patient: this is not available in Africa. Thus, the impact of OD legislation has been practically nil in this continent. As members of the medical profession and of the human family, we must aim to remove barriers that are essentially financial: especially since countries with rich economies share a history of having exploited African countries. We call on the Global Fund to supply hydroxyurea for all SCD patients; and we call on companies who produce ODs to donate, for every patient who receives an expensive OD in a high income country, enough of the same drug, at a symbolic price, to treat one patient in Africa.

How much is a donkey worth? / Qual o valor do jumento?

This study aimed to estimate the donkey unit cost of production and to contextualize it with the socio-economic condition of the Brazilian semiarid region. A study model was proposed in which the costs of maintenance and animal production were considered, assuming that the herd already existed on the property and the use of the available facilities. The production cycle of donkeys was estimated at 36 months, with an initial herd of 100 jennies and five jacks. For the estimation of forage production, native pastures to the semi-arid region were considered. The unit cost of production was estimated for donkey US$ 258.00/year. However, when the donkey is integrated into the production unit of the family farming system, this animal should be considered as a production asset (draught, pack, and ridden). In face of the growing demand for donkey hide in the international market, the absence of public policies for the protection and welfare of these animals, and even considering the possibility of integrating them into family farming systems, the following question must be asked: how long before Northeast donkeys are extinct? Estimating the unit cost of donkey production and considering them as an essential production asset in family farming could be a starting point to diminish their abandonment in several communities and the consequences of the exploitation of hides.(AU)

O estudo teve como objetivo estimar o custo de produção do jumento e contextualizar com a condição socioeconômica da região semiárida brasileira. Foi proposto um modelo de estudo no qual foram considerados os custos de manutenção e produção animal, admitindo que o rebanho já existisse na propriedade com utilização das instalações disponíveis. O ciclo de produção do jumento foi estimado em 36 meses, com rebanho inicial de 100 matrizes e cinco reprodutores. Para a estimativa de produção de forragem, foram consideradas pastagens nativas da região semiárida. Foi estimado o custo de produção do jumento em US$ 258,00/ano. Entretanto, quando o jumento está integrado à unidade produtiva do segmento da agricultura familiar, esse animal deve ser considerado como ativo de produção (tração, carga e transporte). Diante da crescente demanda da pele de jumentos no mercado internacional, da ausência de políticas públicas de proteção e bem-estar desses animais, e mesmo considerando a possibilidade de integrá-los ao sistema de agricultura familiar, permanece a pergunta: quanto tempo vai levar até que os jumentos nordestinos sejam extintos? Estimar o custo unitário da produção de jumentos e considerá-los como um ativo essencial de produção na agricultura familiar pode ser um ponto de partida para diminuir seu abandono às consequências da exploração de pele.(AU)

Quantifying the Economic Impact of Bovine Tuberculosis on Livestock Farms in South-Western Spain.

Pasture-based livestock farming generates income in regions with limited resources and is key to biodiversity conservation. However, costs derived from fighting disease can make the difference between profit and loss, eventually compromising farm survival. Animal TB (TB), a chronic infection of cattle and other domestic and wild hosts, is one of the primary limitations of beef cattle farming in some parts of Europe. When an animal tests positive for TB, a loss of profit is caused in the farm, which is due mainly to the animal's slaughter, replacement of the slaughtered animal and the need to immobilize the rest of the herd. We estimated the economic impact in terms of loss of profit as a result of incremental costs and forgone incomes. We show that farms with a larger number of heads are more capable of dealing with the loss of profit caused by the disease. The quantification of the loss of profit contributes to the ongoing debate on the co-sharing of TB costs between government and farmers. The compensation farmers receive from the public administration to mitigate the economic effects of the disease control interventions is only intended to balance the loss due to slaughter of the infected cattle, being the loss of profit a more global concept.

Data to estimate costs of producing grass-clover silages.

This article presents input data and procedures used to estimate costs of producing grass-clover silages under Norwegian farming conditions. Data of yield, botanical composition and forage quality of the grass crop were derived from a field experiment comparing a three-cut system, harvested at early crop maturity stages producing highly digestible forages, and a two-cut system returning higher herbage yields of medium digestibility. Secondary data on prices of specific inputs were also provided. The data presented here can be used by advisors and farmers as a decision support tool for assessing and comparing costs of different ways of producing silage. Cost estimates of home-grown forages are also needed in bio-economic evaluations of grassland production and utilization by researchers. The data presented is related to the research article entitled: "Technical and economic performance of alternative feeds in dairy and pig production" [1].

Estimation of cost-based prices for injectable medicines in the WHO Essential Medicines List.

OBJECTIVES: Challenges remain in ensuring universal access to affordable essential medicines. We previously estimated the expected generic prices based on cost of production for medicines in solid oral formulations (ie, capsules or tablets) on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (EML). The objectives of this analysis were to estimate cost-based prices for injectable medicines on the EML and to compare these to lowest current prices in England, South Africa, and India. DESIGN: Data on the cost of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) exported from India were extracted from an online database of customs declarations (www.infodriveindia.com). A formula was designed to use API price data to estimate a cost-based price, by adding the costs of converting API to a finished pharmaceutical product, including the cost of formulation in vials or ampoules, transportation and an average profit margin. RESULTS: For injectable formulations on the WHO EML, medicines had prices above the estimated cost-based price in 77% of comparisons in England (median ratio 2.54), and 62% in South Africa (median ratio 1.48), while 85% of medicines in India had prices below estimated cost-based price (median ratio 0.30). 19% of injectable medicines in England, 9% in South Africa, and 5% in India had prices more than 10 times the estimated cost-based price. Medicines that appeared in the top 20 by ratio of lowest current price to estimated cost-based price for more than one country included numerous oncology medicines-irinotecan, leuprorelin, ifosfamide, daunorubicin, filgrastim and mesna-as well as valproic acid and ciclosporin. CONCLUSIONS: Estimating manufacturing costs can identify cases in which profit margins for medicines may be set significantly higher than average.

Rentabilidad económica de la actividad lechera de unidades demostrativas del programa Balde Lleno, en Río de Janeiro, Brasil / Economic Profitability of the Dairy Activity of Demonstration Units of the Balde Lleno Program, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil / Rentabilidade económica da atividade leiteira de unidades demonstrativas do programa Balde Cheio no Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la rentabilidad de 20 unidades demostrativas (UD) participantes del programa Balde Lleno ("Balde Cheio"), en Río de Janeiro, entre enero y diciembre de 2011. También se pretendió identificar los componentes que ejercen mayor influencia sobre el costo total y operacional efectivo, además del impacto de cada uno de ellos en los ingresos. Los datos fueron analizados con el software PASW 18.0. Se utilizó el modelo de regresión lineal múltiple con el método stepwise para identificar los componentes del costo de producción que más influenció en la margen líquida, la lucratividad y la rentabilidad. En el análisis económico, cuando se consideraron los indicadores de margen bruta, líquida y el resultado de la actividad lechera, se observaron condiciones para producir en el corto y mediano plazo, pero no a largo plazo, debido al resultado negativo, el cual llevaría a la descapitalización del productor. Los ítems componentes del costo operacional efectivo, que ejercieron mayores representatividades sobre el costo de la actividad lechera, en orden decreciente, fueron la alimentación, la mano de obra y los diversos gastos; en cuanto al costo total, en orden decreciente, los ítems fueron la alimentación, la mano de obra y la remuneración del capital invertido.

Abstract This research aimed to analyze the profitability of 20 demonstration units (DUs) participating in the Balde Lleno program ("Balde Cheio"), in Rio de Janeiro, between January and December 2011. It also sought to identify components with the greatest influence on total and effective operational costs, in addition to their impact on revenues. Data were analyzed with the PASW 18.0 software. The multiple linear regression model was used with the stepwise method to identify production cost components that had the greatest influence on the liquid margin, lucrativeness, and profitability. Regarding the indicators of gross and liquid margin, as well as the result of dairy activity, the economic analysis examined conditions to produce in the short and medium term, but not in the long run, due to a negative result, which would lead to the decapitalization of the producer. The component items of effective operational cost that had greater representativeness on the cost of dairy activity were, in decreasing order, food, labor, and various expenses; in terms of total cost, in decreasing order, the components were food, labor, and the remuneration of the capital invested.

Resumo O objetivo desta pesquisa foi analisar a rentabilidade de vinte unidades demonstrativas (UD) participantes do programa Balde Cheio, no Rio de Janeiro, entre janeiro e dezembro de 2011. Pretendeu-se também identificar os componentes que mais exercem influência sobre o custo total e operacional efetivo, além do impacto de cada um deles nas rendas. Os dados foram analisados com o software PASW 18.0. Utilizou-se o modelo de regressão linear múltipla com o método stepwise para identificar os componentes do custo de produção mais influenciadores na margem líquida, lucratividade e rentabilidade. Na análise económica, quando considerados os indicadores de margem bruta, líquida e o resultado da atividade leiteira, observaram-se condições para produzir no curto e médio prazo, mas não no longo prazo, devido ao resultado negativo, que levaria à descapitalização do produtor. Os itens componentes do custo operacional efetivo que exerceram maiores representatividades sobre o custo da atividade leiteira, em ordem decrescente, foram refeições, mão de obra e despesas diversas. No que diz respeito do custo total, em ordem decrescente, os itens foram refeições, mão de obra e remuneração do capital investido.

Production costs and potential prices for biosimilars of human insulin and insulin analogues.

INTRODUCTION: High prices for insulin pose a barrier to treatment for people living with diabetes, with an estimated 50% of 100 million patients needing insulin lacking reliable access. As insulin analogues replace regular human insulin (RHI) globally, their relative prices will become increasingly important. Three originator companies control 96% of the global insulin market, and few biosimilar insulins are available. We estimated the price reductions that could be achieved if numerous biosimilar manufacturers entered the insulin market. METHODS: Data on the price of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) exported from India were retrieved from an online customs database. Manufacturers of insulins were contacted for price quotes. Where market API prices could not be identified, prices were estimated based on comparison of similarity, in terms of manufacturing process, with APIs for which prices were available. Potential biosimilar prices were estimated by adding costs of excipients, formulation, transport, development and regulatory costs, and a profit margin. RESULTS: The manufacturing processes for RHI and insulin analogues are similar. API prices were US$24 750/kg for RHI, US$68 757/kg for insulin glargine and an estimated US$100 000/kg for other analogues. Estimated biosimilar prices were US$48-71 per patient per year for RHI, US$49-72 for neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin and US$78-133 for analogues (except detemir: US$283-365). CONCLUSION: Treatment with biosimilar RHI and insulin NPH could cost ≤US$72 per year and with insulin analogues ≤US$133 per year. Estimated biosimilar prices were markedly lower than the current prices for insulin analogues. Widespread availability at estimated prices may allow substantial savings globally.

Estimated costs of production and potential prices for the WHO Essential Medicines List.

INTRODUCTION: There are persistent gaps in access to affordable medicines. The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (EML) includes medicines considered necessary for functional health systems. METHODS: A generic price estimation formula was developed by reviewing published analyses of cost of production for medicines and assuming manufacture in India, which included costs of formulation, packaging, taxation and a 10% profit margin. Data on per-kilogram prices of active pharmaceutical ingredient exported from India were retrieved from an online database. Estimated prices were compared with the lowest globally available prices for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB) and malaria medicines, and current prices in the UK, South Africa and India. RESULTS: The estimation formula had good predictive accuracy for HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria medicines. Estimated generic prices ranged from US$0.01 to US$1.45 per unit, with most in the lower end of this range. Lowest available prices were greater than estimated generic prices for 214/277 (77%) comparable items in the UK, 142/212 (67%) in South Africa and 118/298 (40%) in India. Lowest available prices were more than three times above estimated generic price for 47% of cases compared in the UK and 22% in South Africa. CONCLUSION: A wide range of medicines in the EML can be profitably manufactured at very low cost. Most EML medicines are sold in the UK and South Africa at prices significantly higher than those estimated from production costs. Generic price estimation and international price comparisons could empower government price negotiations and support cost-effectiveness calculations.

Bio-economic evaluation of a reduced phosphorus supplementation strategy for a cow-calf system in Brazil: a case study.

Fertility, weight of calves at weaning, and the economic aspects of a breeding herd receiving mineral supplements containing 75 or 12.5 g of phosphorus (P)/kg were measured from 2013 to 2016. No differences in reproduction parameters or weight at weaning were found before and after the adoption of the new scheme of mineral supplementation. Before the study, the annual cost with the formula containing more P was equivalent to 29.3 weaned beef calves; after the P reduction, the annual cost was equivalent to 2.2 to 6.8 weaned calves. After 3 years of supplementation with 12.5 g P/kg no signs of P deficiency were observed. The clinical-nutritional diagnosis of the herd indicated no cause-effect of P content of mineral supplements upon fertility or performance of healthy cows, demonstranting that the adequate forage allowance was enough to meet most P required by the cows.

Análisis de rentabilidad de la producción de leche de acuerdo con la variación de la fuente de carbohidrato utilizada en el suplemento de vacas holstein / Analysis of milk production profitability according to variation in the carbohydrate source used in the supplementation of Holstein cows / Análise de rentabilidade da produção de leite segundo a variação da fonte de carbo-hidrato utilizada no suplemento de vacas Holstein

Resumen En Latinoamérica, Colombia es el cuarto productor de leche. El elevado costo de los insumos alimenticios puede ser limitante para la rentabilidad de esta actividad. El precio del maíz como ingrediente energético extensamente demandado por el sector de alimentos y la producción de biocombustibles es uno de los factores que más influye en el costo de alimentación. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la rentabilidad de la producción de leche en función de la fuente del carbohidrato utilizada para la suplementación de vacas holstein en pastoreo. El tratamiento 1 (T1) incluyó como fuente principal de energía (en el suplemento) el maíz (Zea mays); en los tratamientos 2, 3 y 4, aproximadamente el 50 % de los nutrientes digestibles totales (NDT) aportados por el maíz fueron garantizados por sorgo (Sorghum vulgare, T2), yuca (Manihot esculenta, T3) y pulpa cítrica (Citrus sp., T4). Si bien entre tratamientos no se registraron diferencias estadísticas en la producción de leche y su calidad composicional (p > 0,05), la inclusión de yuca mejoró el ingreso por venta de leche al incidir positivamente en el precio base del producto (gramos de proteína y grasa producidos). Además de ello, la inclusión de yuca redujo el costo asociado con la suplementación y el costo total de producción del litro de leche, lo que finalmente mejoró los indicadores de rentabilidad evaluados. El tratamiento que incluyó pulpa cítrica fue el que registró menor rentabilidad, consecuencia de su menor disponibilidad y mayor costo de adquisición.

Abstract In Latin America, Colombia is the fourth largest milk producer. The high cost of food supplies can limit the profitability of this activity. The price of corn as an energy ingredient widely demanded by the food sector and biofuel production is one of the factors that most influences food costs. This work aimed to evaluate the profitability of milk production according to the carbohydrate source used in the supplementation of grazing Holstein cows. Treatment 1 (T1) included corn (Zea mays) as the main source of energy (in the supplement); in Treatments 2, 3, and 4, approximately 50% of the total digestible nutrients (TDN) provided by corn were guaranteed by sorghum (Sorghum vulgare, T2), cassava (Manihot esculenta, T3), and citrus pulp (Citrus sp., T4). Although there were no statistical differences among treatments regarding milk production and compositional quality (p > 0.05), the inclusion of cassava improved the income from milk sales by positively affecting the base price of the product (grams of protein and fat produced). In addition, the inclusion of cassava reduced the cost associated with supplementation and the total cost of production of a liter of milk, which ultimately improved the profitability indicators evaluated. It was the treatment that included citrus pulp that registered lower profitability, due to its lower availability and higher acquisition costs.

Resumo Na América Latina, a Colômbia é o quarto produtor de leite. O elevado custo dos insumos alimentícios pode ser limitante para a rentabilidade desta atividade. O preço do milho como ingrediente energético extensamente demandado pelo setor de alimentos e a produção de biocombustíveis é um dos fatores que mais influi no custo de alimentação. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a rentabilidade da produção de leite em função da fonte do carbo-hidrato utilizada para a suplementação de vacas Holstein em pastoreio. O tratamento 1 (T1) incluiu como fonte principal de energia (no suplemento) o milho (Zea mays); nos tratamentos 2, 3 e 4, aproximadamente o 50 % dos nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT) aportados pelo milho foram garantidos por sorgo (Sorghum vulgare, T2), mandioca (Manihot esculenta, T3) e polpa cítrica (Citrus sp., T4). Mesmo que entre tratamentos não se registraram diferenças estatísticas na produção de leite e sua qualidade composicional (p > 0,05), a inclusão de mandioca melhorou o ingresso por venda de leite ao incidir positivamente no preço base do produto (gramas de proteína e gordura produzidos). Além disso, a inclusão de mandioca reduziu o custo associado com a suplementação e o custo total de produção do litro de leite, o que finalmente melhorou os indicadores de rentabilidade avaliados. O tratamento que incluiu polpa cítrica foi o que registrou menor rentabilidade, consequência de sua menor disponibilidade e maior custo de aquisição.

Economic and soil quality indicators in soybean crops grown under integrated crop-livestock and winter-grain cultivation systems / Relação entre indicadores econômicos e edáficos de qualidade do solo em lavouras de soja com ILP ou produção de grãos no inverno

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between economic indicators of soybean crops ( Glycine max L.) cultivated with Crop-Livestock Integration (CLI) or with grain production in winter, and the chemical, physical and biological attributes of the soil. It was selected ten agricultural sites in Santa Catarina to measure economic results and edaphic attributes, data was submitted to a Principal Components Analysis (PCA). Results indicated that soybean production in the summer and grain production in the winter yielded better economic results compared with summer soybean and CLI in winter. This reflects the higher productivity of the crops (9.1%) and the improved chemical, physical, and biological attributes of the soil (with the exception of organic matter content and macroporosity, which were better under the soybean system with CLI).

RESUMO: O estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a relação entre resultados econômicos de lavouras de soja ( Glycine maxL.) cultivadas com Integração Lavoura-Pecuária (ILP) ou produção de grãos no inverno e atributos químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo. Foram selecionadas dez propriedades rurais, consideradas referência em Santa Catarina, para a determinação dos resultados econômicos das lavouras de soja e dos atributos edáficos, que foram submetidos à análise de componentes principais (ACP). Os resultados indicam que o sistema de produção de soja no verão e grãos no inverno apresentou melhores resultados econômicos em comparação com o sistema de soja no verão e ILP no inverno. Este resultado decorre da maior produtividade das lavouras (9,1%), devido às melhores condições químicas, físicas e biológicas do solo, com exceção do teor de matéria orgânica e da macroporosidade, que ficaram mais associadas ao sistema soja com ILP.

Economic assessment of different mulches in conventional and water-saving rice production systems.

Water-saving rice production systems including alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and aerobic rice (AR) are being increasingly adopted by growers due to global water crises. Application of natural and artificial mulches may further improve water economy of water-saving rice production systems. Conventionally flooded rice (CFR) system has been rarely compared with AWD and AR in terms of economic returns. In this 2-year field study, we compared CFR with AWD and AR (with and without straw and plastic mulches) for the cost of production and economic benefits. Results indicated that CFR had a higher production cost than AWD and AR. However, application of mulches increased the cost of production of AWD and AR production systems where plastic mulch was expensive than straw mulch. Although the mulching increased the cost of production for AWD and AR, the gross income of these systems was also improved significantly. The gross income from mulched plots of AWD and AR was higher than non-mulched plots of the same systems. In conclusion, AWD and AR effectively reduce cost of production by economizing the water use. However, the use of natural and artificial mulches in such water-saving environments further increased the economic returns. The maximized economic returns by using straw mulch in water-saving rice production systems definitely have pragmatic implications for sustainable agriculture.

Análise econômica do milho em sucessão a diferentes adubos verdes, manejos do solo e doses de nitrogênio / Economic evaluation of maize in succession to different green manure, soil management and nitrogen doses

Tecnologias que aumentam a produtividade das culturas são viáveis quando proporcionam lucratividade ao produtor. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os custos de produção e a lucratividade do milho irrigado, em diferentes sistemas de produção no cerrado. O trabalho foi conduzido em Selvíria (MS), nos anos 2009/10 e 2010/11. O delineamento experimental foi disposto em blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições, em esquema misto com faixas e fatorial. Foram estabelecidos 36 tratamentos, sendo três adubos verdes (milheto, crotalária e consórcio milheto + crotalária), três manejos do solo (sistema plantio direto, "grade pesada" + "grade leve" e "escarificador" + "grade leve") e quatro doses de N em cobertura (0, 60, 90 e 120 kg ha-1). Para análise econômica foram estimados o custo operacional efetivo, a receita bruta obtida pelo produto em função da produtividade dos tratamentos e o valor dos grãos de milho (R$ 0,417 kg-1 ou R$ 25,00 sc-1) e a relação receita/custo dos tratamentos. Considerando valores maiores (receita/custo > 1) e menores (receita/custo < 1) como parâmetro na análise de lucratividade, pode-se concluir que o milho no sistema plantio direto obteve maior lucratividade; em sucessão ao milheto lucratividade crescente com o aumento das doses de N, em sucessão a crotalária e na ausência da aplicação do adubo nitrogenado em cobertura obteve a maior lucratividade em relação aos demais tratamentos e em sucessão ao consórcio milheto + crotalária doses de N em cobertura entre 50 e 55 kg ha-1 proporcionam maior lucratividade ao cultivo do milho.

Technologies that increase crop yields are possible when providing profitability to the producer. The objective of this study was to evaluate production costs and profitability of maize in production systems in Cerrado. The study was conducted in Selvíria (Mato Grosso do Sul State), Brazil, in the years 2009/10 and 2010/11. The experiment was arranged in randomized blocks with four replications in factorial and mixed with tracks. We established 36 treatments, three green manures (Pennisetum glaucum, Crotalaria juncea and intercropping Pennisetum glaucum + Crotalaria juncea), three soil management practices (no-tillage system, "heavy disking" + "levelling disking" and "chisel plow" + "levelling disking") and four doses of N (0, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1). For economic analysis were estimated operational cost, the gross revenue obtained by the product of the productivity of the treatments and the value of corn (R$ 0,417 kg or R$ 25,00 sc-1) and the ratio revenue / cost of treatment. Whereas higher values (revenue/cost > 1) and lower (revenue/cost ratio < 1) as a parameter in the analysis of profitability, it can be concluded that corn under no-tillage had the highest profitability in succession to Pennisetum glaucum growing profitability with increasing N rates, in succession to Crotalaria juncea and in the absence of nitrogen application on the coverage achieved higher profitability compared to other treatments and in succession to the consortium Pennisetum glaucum + Crotalaria juncea doses of N was between 50 and 55 kg ha-1 offer greater profitability to the cultivation of corn.

Optimization of ingredients for noodle preparation using response surface methodology.

In the present investigation, the composite flour combinations using whole wheat flour (X1), tapioca flour (X2) and defatted soy flour (X3) for the noodle preparation were made through central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The analyzed responses were bulk density (BD), proximate composition, water uptake ratio (WUR), cooking volume expansion (VE), water absorption capacity (WAC), swelling capacity (SC), gruel solid loss (GSL), and sensory characteristics. A second order quadratic polynomial equation was fitted to the data of all responses for prediction. The maximum protein content of 16 g% was achieved by the combination of 75.54 g of whole wheat flour, 10 g of tapioca flour and 19.78 g of defatted soy flour. Since the inclusion of defatted soy flour >10 g resulted negative influence on good quality determining responses, the Chinese salted noodles of excellent quality with maximum WAC, WUR, VE, SC, protein, carbohydrate, ash and minimum GSL, BD, fat, moisture could be made from ratio of combination of three independent variables at 77.33 g (X1): 22.19 g (X2): 8.92 g (X3) respectively. The cost of production per kg of noodles with optimum level of ingredient was Rs.75.50/-.

Quality of ω-3 fatty acid enriched low-fat chicken meat patties incorporated with selected levels of linseed flour/oil and canola flour/oil.

The aim of the present study was to compare the nutritional, processing and sensory characteristics of low-fat ω-3 enriched fatty acids chicken meat patties (CMP) prepared with the incorporation of 4% linseed flour (T1), 2% canola flour (T2), 3% linseed oil (T3), and 4% canola oil (T4) and to estimate their cost of production. The total fat and crude fiber content was increased (P < 0.05) with the incorporation of linseed flour. The emulsion stability and cooking yield was greater (P < 0.05) in T4 among all the treatments. The percent shrinkage was lower (P < 0.05) in linseed/canola oil incorporated CMP than their respective flours. The colour and appearance and flavour scores were lower (P < 0.05) in canola flour than canola oil incorporated CMP. The texture scores were not influenced (P < 0.05) in linseed-and canola-treated products. The overall acceptability was greatest (P < 0.05) in T4 whereas, lowest (P < 0.05) in T2 among all treated products. The cost of production was increased by 3-5% with the incorporation of linseed and canola oil whereas it was almost same for control and linseed flour.

Análise da matriz energética e econômica das culturas de arroz, soja e trigo em sistemas de produção tecnificados no Rio Grande do Sul / Matrix analysis of energy and economic crop of rice, soy and wheat in intensive production system in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

A presente análise tem a finalidade de comparar o desempenho entre unidades e atividades produtivas, interligando os parâmetros energéticos aos econômicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a relação entre a energia produzida e consumida durante o processo de produção das principais culturas de cereais do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, a saber, trigo, arroz e soja, em contraposição aos resultados econômicos das respectivas atividades. A pesquisa foi do tipo exploratória, a partir de estudos de multicaso, com uso de pesquisa bibliográfica, análises de laboratório e entrevistas. Para determinar os resultados de análises energéticas, foram realizados os balanços energéticos e as eficiências culturais e energéticas das culturas. Para determinar os resultados econômicos das atividades estudadas, foi utilizada a Teoria do Valor Agregado. Os resultados demonstram que a atividade da soja, em sistema de plantio direto com rotação de culturas, alcançou a maior eficiência energética, entre 25,58MJ ha-1 a 38,39MJ ha-1, sendo que a relação de menor eficiência foi a cultura do trigo, com 3,13MJ ha-1. Em relação ao desempenho econômico das culturas, a soja igualmente mostrou a melhor eficiência econômica igual a 2,47 e a do trigo foi de 1,14 a menor. Cabe destacar os significativos resultados econômicos obtidos pela cultura do arroz, expressos pelo alto valor agregado, obtido por unidade de área (VAL/ha de R$ 3.802,00) em função de sua alta produtividade física. Apesar dos indicadores energéticos serem positivos, houve significativos gastos com fertilizantes, combustíveis e agrotóxicos em todas as propriedades estudadas. Dessa forma, reforça-se a importância do debate sobre a sustentabilidade socioambiental dos sistemas estudados, principalmente quando analisados sob a ótica dos gastos energéticos de bens não-renováveis e da problemática social atribuída à mão-de-obra.

The energy analysis aims to compare the performance between productive units and activities, searching an approach to link the energy with the economic. Objectives is the analysis of the energy produced and consumed during the production process of major crops in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, namely, rice, soybeans and wheat, opposed to the economic results of such activities. The research was exploratory and based on multi-case studies with the use of literature review, laboratory analysis and interviews. To determine the results of energy analyzes were performed energy audits and energy efficiencies and cultural crops, while for the economic results we used the theory of Earned Value. The results demonstrate that the activity of soybean in no-tillage system with crop rotation achieved the highest energy efficiency between 25.58MJ ha-1 and 38.39MJ ha-1, whereas wheat culture showed the lowest efficiency with 3.13MJ ha-1. Regarding the economic performance of crops, soybeans showed the highest economic efficiency 2.47 and wheat the lowest 1.14. It is worth mentioning the significant economic results achieved by the rice crop, expressed by the high added-value obtained per unit area (VAL/ha R$ 3,802.00) due to its high physical productivity. In spite of having positive energy indicators, significant expenses on fertilizer, fuel and pesticides were observed in all properties studied. Thus, we reinforce the importance of the debate on social and environmental sustainability of the systems studied, especially when analyzed from the perspective of energy expenses of non-renewable resources and social problems attributed to workforce.

Identifying efficient dairy heifer producers using production costs and data envelopment analysis.

During November and December 2011, data were collected from 44 dairy operations in 13 Pennsylvania counties. Researchers visited each farm to collect information regarding management practices and feeding, and costs for labor, health, bedding, and reproduction for replacement heifers from birth until first calving. Costs per heifer were broken up into 4 time periods: birth until weaning, weaning until 6 mo of age, 6 mo of age until breeding age, and heifers from breeding to calving. Milk production records for each herd were obtained from Dairy Herd Improvement. The average number of milking cows on farms in this study was 197.8 ± 280.1, with a range from 38 to 1,708. Total cost averaged $1,808.23 ± $338.62 from birth until freshening. Raising calves from birth to weaning cost $217.49 ± 86.21; raising heifers from weaning age through 6 mo of age cost $247.38 ± 78.89; raising heifers from 6 mo of age until breeding cost $607.02 ± 192.28; and total cost for bred heifers was $736.33 ± 162.86. Feed costs were the largest component of the cost to raise heifers from birth to calving, accounting for nearly 73% of the total. Data envelopment analysis determined that 9 of the 44 farms had no inefficiencies in inputs or outputs. These farms best combined feed and labor investments, spending, on average, $1,137.40 and $140.62/heifer for feed and labor. These heifers calved at 23.7 mo of age and produced 88.42% of the milk produced by older cows. In contrast, the 35 inefficient farms spent $227 more on feed and $78 more on labor per heifer for animals that calved 1.6 mo later and produced only 82% of the milk made by their mature herdmates. Efficiency was attained by herds with the lowest input costs, but herds with higher input costs were also able to be efficient if age at calving was low and milk production was high for heifers compared with the rest of the herd.

Viabilidade econômica da terceira ordenha em sistemas de produção de leite com ordenhadeira tipo circuito aberto / Economic viability of the third milking in milk production systems using open circuit type milking mechanics

Objetivou-se analisar a viabilidade econômica da terceira ordenha em sistemas de produção de leite que utilizam ordenhadeira mecânica, do tipo circuito aberto, visando fornecer aos técnicos e pecuaristas informações que os auxiliem no processo de tomada de decisões. Especificamente pretendeu-se ainda: a) estimar o custo de uma ordenha; b) estimar, por meio de simulação, o custo da terceira ordenha; c) desenvolver uma equação matemática que permita estimar a quantidade mínima de leite produzido em duas ordenhas, a partir da qual será viável economicamente a realização da terceira ordenha. Os dados foram coletados em três sistemas de produção de leite, em uma rotina de duas ordenhas diárias, sendo realizadas três coletas de dados em cada um, perfazendo um total de nove. Considerando-se os dados médios, seria viável a realização da terceira ordenha se a produtividade média diária das vacas em lactação em duas ordenhas fosse igual ou superior a 38,13kg de leite. A equação matemática desenvolvida pode auxiliar o técnico e o pecuarista a estimarem a quantidade mínima de leite produzido por uma vaca em duas ordenhas, a partir da qual será viável economicamente a realização da terceira ordenha, com precisão e considerável rapidez.

This study aims to analyze the economic viability of the third milking in milk production systems using open circuit milking mechanics, aiming to provide technicians and farmers with information to help in the decision-making process. Specifically intend to a) estimate the cost of a milking; (b) estimate, by means of simulation, the cost of the third milking; (c) develop a mathematical equation that allows estimating the minimum amount of milk produced in two milkings, from which it will be economically feasible to hold the third milking. The data were collected in three milk production systems, in a routine of two milkings per day, with three collections of data in each, a total of nine collections. Considering the average data, it would be feasible to hold the third milking if the productivity of daily average lactating cows is equal or greater than 38.13 kg of milk. The mathematical equation developed may help the technician and the farmer to estimate the minimum quantity of milk produced by a cow in two milkings, from which it will be economically feasible to hold the third milking with precision and considerable speed.