Native Potato Starch and Tara Gum as Polymeric Matrices to Obtain Iron-Loaded Microcapsules from Ovine and Bovine Erythrocytes.

Iron deficiency leads to ferropenic anemia in humans. This study aimed to encapsulate iron-rich ovine and bovine erythrocytes using tara gum and native potato starch as matrices. Solutions containing 20% erythrocytes and different proportions of encapsulants (5, 10, and 20%) were used, followed by spray drying at 120 and 140 °C. Iron content in erythrocytes ranged between 2.24 and 2.52 mg of Fe/g; microcapsules ranged from 1.54 to 2.02 mg of Fe/g. Yields varied from 50.55 to 63.40%, and temperature and encapsulant proportion affected moisture and water activity. Various red hues, sizes, and shapes were observed in the microcapsules. SEM-EDS analysis revealed the surface presence of iron in microcapsules with openings on their exterior, along with a negative zeta potential. Thermal and infrared analyses confirmed core encapsulation within the matrices. Iron release varied between 92.30 and 93.13% at 120 min. Finally, the most effective treatments were those with higher encapsulant percentages and dried at elevated temperatures, which could enable their utilization in functional food fortification to combat anemia in developing countries.

Bioactive Compounds and Sensory Quality in Chips of Native Potato Clones (Solanum tuberosum spp. andigena) Grown in the High Andean Region of PERU.

Native potatoes (Solanum tuberosum spp. andigena) have diverse pigments and are cultivated in Peru's high Andean regions; they are characterized by containing bioactive compounds that prevent various degenerative diseases. The study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and sensory quality in chips of native potato clones grown at 3496 m altitude, for which the potatoes were cut into slices and fried in extra virgin olive oil at 180 °C for 200 s. This was determined by proximal analysis, reducing sugars, minerals, color, antioxidant capacity (AC), total phenolic compounds (TPC), and anthocyanins in fresh and chips; an instrumental characterization by FTIR and SEM and sensory tests were also performed. The native potatoes presented low moisture and reduced sugar contents; when frying, their bioactive properties improved, increasing AC, TPC, and trace elements, such as K, Mg, Ca, P, Fe, and Zn. To conclude, fresh clones have high yields in the field and are an essential source of nutrients and bioactive; the salt-free chips of clone B presented better physicochemical properties and greater sensory acceptance, closely followed by clone A. Both clones could be used as raw material by food companies that produce snacks to benefit high Andean agricultural producers.

The native potato, a symbol of macho expression in the Quechua culture of Peru.

The present field research focuses on the native potato varieties, Wira pasña and Llumchuy waqachi, cultivated in the Peruvian highlands at roughly 4,000 m above sea level. The objective is to analyze the macho essence of the names assigned to the native potato, names that represent the social manifestation of women in Quechua culture. Participant observation and interviews about the different daily activities of the participants facilitated the research on the macho essence of the names of the native potato in the Quechua culture. The preponderant Quechua oral sources in the Peruvian Andes did not allow us to identify exactly how names associated with the macho way of social life were assigned to the native potatoes.

Efecto de la fritura sobre los componentes bioactivos de la papa nativa (Solanum tuberosum sp.) Puka Ambrosio

RESUMEN En esta investigación, con el método de superficie de respuesta (33), se determinó la máxima retención de ácido ascórbico en papa Puka Ambrosio sometida a fritura. Se ensayó con 160, 170 y 180 °C; 150, 180 y 210 segundos; 2, 3 y 4 mm de espesor de hojuela. Se retuvo 87,3% de ácido ascórbico en hojuelas de 2 mm de espesor sometidas a 170 °C y 200 segundos de fritura. El espesor y la interacción entre este y el tiempo tuvieron efecto significativo (p<0,05) sobre la retención. La papa y la hojuela frita tuvieron respectivamente en promedio: 21,0±1,6 y 18,4±2,9 mg/100 g de ácido ascórbico; 27,1 ± 2,1 y 21,1 ± 3,3 mg/100 g de vitamina C en base seca desgrasada; 69,0±0,03 y 22,2±0,03% de humedad; 1±0,09 y 21,9±0,03 de grasa cruda en base seca; y 332±97 y 597±22 mg de ácido clorogénico equivalente/100 g de compuestos fenólicos totales; 6424±57 y 8309±80 μg de equivalente Trolox/g de capacidad antioxidante; y 58,1±1,7 y 33,6±5,0 mg de cianidina-3-glucósido equivalente/100 g de antocianinas totales, todas medidas en base seca desgrasada. La operación de fritura generó modificaciones en las características físicas, químicas, concentración de componentes bioactivos y capacidad antioxidante, observándose un incremento en el contenido de carbohidratos, fibra, cenizas, compuestos fenólicos y capacidad antioxidante.

ABSTRACT In this research, the maximum retention of ascorbic acid was determined in the Puka Ambrosio potato subjected to frying using the response surface method (33). Retention was tested at 160, 170 and 180 °C for 150, 180 and 210 seconds and with a flake thickness of 2, 3 and 4 mm. In 2 mm flakes at 170 °C and 200 seconds of frying, 87.3% ascorbic acid was retained. Flake thickness and the interaction between thickness and frying time had a significant effect (p<0.05) on retention. The potato and its fried flakes had on average: 21.0±1.6 and 18.4±2.9 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid, respectively; and 7.1±2.1 and 21.1±3.3 mg/100 g of vitamin C on a defatted dry basis; 69±0.03 and 22.2±0.03 percent moisture; 1±0.09 and 21.9±0.03 of crude fat on dry basis; 332±97; and 597±22 mg of chlorogenic acid equivalent/100 g of total phenolic compounds; 6424±57 and 8309±80 μg of Trolox equivalent/g of antioxidant capacity; and 58.1±1.7 and 33.6±5.0 mg of cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent /100 g of total anthocyanins on a defatted dry basis. The frying operation generated modifications in the physical-chemical characteristics, of bioactive component concentration and in the antioxidant capacity. We observed an increase in the content of carbohydrates, fiber, ash, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity.

Preparation and Chemical and Physical Characteristics of an Edible Film Based on Native Potato Starch and Nopal Mucilage.

Edible films prepared from biological materials are being massively used. This study aimed to prepare edible films from native potato starch of the Allcca sipas variety (Solanum tuberosum subsp. Andigena), nopal mucilage (Opuntia ficus indica), and glycerol. Twelve edible films were prepared with starch, mucilage, and glycerin in different proportions by thermosynthesis. It was observed that mucilage and glycerol have a significant direct effect on film solubility and an inverse effect on aw, while the effect of starch is the opposite. The aw ranged from 0.562 to 0.639. The FTIR analysis showed the interaction of the components in the films being considerably influenced by the addition of mucilage. The TGA/DTA analysis reported low thermal stability in the films, retaining water around 100 °C, and showing a tendency to lose weight when the content of starch is high, while the opposite occurred with the addition of mucilage; it was also observed that around 310 °C, the maximum weight loss was observed between 53.6 and 86.1%. SEM images showed uniform films without cracks. The results are promising and show the possibility of preparing edible films from native potato starch and mucilage.

Characterization of starches obtained from several native potato varieties grown in Cusco (Peru).

Ten native potato varieties grown in Cusco (at 3,672 m above sea level) were used for starches extraction (at a pilot scale), and their physicochemical, functional, morphological, and structural characteristics were assessed. The content of protein, apparent amylose and phosphorus ranged from 0.1% to 0.44%, 23.42% to 35.5%, and 0.07 to 0.10%, respectively. Starch granules revealed smooth surface, with ellipsoidal and spherical shapes, particle size analysis exhibited bimodal or multimodal distribution, while the averaged crystallinity was 27.7% assessed by XRD. Gelatinization temperatures of the starches ranged from 57.4 to 60.1 °C, 60.8 to 64.3 °C, and 68.4 to 71.1°C for To, Tp, and Tc, respectively; and the gelatinization enthalpies ranged from 15.4 to 17.1 J/g. Respect to pasting properties, the peak viscosity and setback viscosity ranged from 12,970 to 16,970 mPa⋅s and from 968 to 2498 mPa⋅s, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed no significant relationship between apparent amylose content and thermal stability. Therefore, the results reveal subtle differences in the functional characteristics of the starches from the native varieties of potato studied, which can be recommended for food industry applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study contributes to show several varieties of native potatoes from Cusco and their valorization as nonconventional starch source. Describing the physicochemical, functional, and structural characteristics of these starches could be useful for food industry applications.

Physicochemical, functional and morphological characterization of starches isolated from three native potatoes of the Andean region.

Three varieties of native potato (Imilla blanca, Imilla negra and Loc'ka) that grow in the Andean region at more than 3800 m.a.s.l. were selected fot the extraction and characterization or their starch. Instrumental techniques such as scanning electron microsocopic (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transformed infrarred spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction, colorimetry and polarized light microscopy were used. The results showed that only Loc'kás starch had a unimodal granule size distribution, whereas Imilla negra and Imilla blanca starches showed two and three granule size populations, respectively. The starch from Imilla negra showed higher apparent amylose content, peak viscosity, phosphorous content and paste clarity. The starch from Imilla blanca showed high relative crystallinity, while Imilla blanca and Imilla negra had higher intensity ratios than that from Loc'ka, suggesting high molecular order. Cooked starch from Imilla negra showed higher resistant starch (RS) fraction than the other starches studied.

Papas nativas con potencial antioxidante, cultivadas en el norte del Perú / Native potatoes with antioxidant potential, grown in northern Peru

Peru is not only megadiverse in flora and fauna, but also in "native varieties of potatoes" that have been used by pre-Inca civilizations. In this context, "native potatoes" not only have a high nutritional value in antioxidants, but also a high capacity to cure and/or alleviate diseases; providing quality of life that is reflected in the longevity of the Andean population. However, in the absence of documentation and dissemination, many varieties and their ethnobotanical knowledge is being lost. To preserve and disseminate this valuable ancestral knowledge, a taxonomic, phytogeographic and ethnobotanical inventory was carried out, based on periodic botanical explorations during the period 1997-2017. The information obtained was complemented with other researches and reports by other authors. 317 "varieties of native potato" are reported for the North of Peru, of which 86, are "native varieties of colored pulp".

El Perú no sólo es megadiverso en flora y fauna, sino también en "variedades nativas de papas" que han sido utilizadas desde las civilizaciones preincas. En este contexto las "papas nativas" no sólo poseen un elevado valor nutricional en antioxidantes, sino también una alta capacidad de curar y/o aliviar enfermedades; brindando calidad de vida que se refleja en la longevidad de la población andina. Sin embargo, ante la falta de documentación y difusión, muchas variedades y su conocimiento etnobotánico se está perdiendo. Para preservar y difundir este valioso conocimiento ancestral, se llevó a cabo un inventario taxonómico, fitogeográfico y etnobotánico, en base a exploraciones botánicas periódicas durante el período 1997-2017. La información obtenida se complementó con otras investigaciones y reportes de otros autores. Se reportan para el Norte del Perú 317 "variedades de papa nativa", de las cuales 86, son variedades "nativas de pulpa de color".

Caracterización molecular de papas nativas (Solanum spp.) del distrito de Chungui, Ayacucho, mediante AFLP

Con el objetivo de evaluar la diversidad genética de Solanum spp. del distrito de Chungui, La Mar, Ayacucho, se colectaron 25 morfotipos de papas nativas los cuales fueron introducidos y micropropagados en el medio de cultivo Murashigue Skoog (1962). La extracción de ADN se procedió utilizando el método CTAB modificado a partir de hojas de 3 semanas cultivo, se logró buena calidad y cantidad de ADN para emplear el AFLP. La digestión enzimática del ADN se realizó utilizando EcoRI y MseI. Se emplearon tres combinaciones de primers AFLP con tres nucleótidos selectivos, originándose un total de 85 bandas claramente diferenciables, de las cuales 63 fueron polimórficas. La combinación E37 - M50 fue la más informativa obteniendo un índice de contenido polimórfico de 0.43. La lectura de la presencia o ausencia de bandas polimórficas de los morfotipos evaluados empleando el coeficiente de similitud Simple Matching y el análisis de agrupamiento según el algoritmo UPGMA originó un dendograma con un índice de correlación cofenética de r= 0.7. El dendograma con un coeficiente de similitud de 0.64 agrupó a los morfotipos de papas nativas en 4 grupos genéticos y no se encontró morfotipos duplicados a pesar de tener algunas características morfológicas muy semejantes. Estos resultados demuestran el alto poder informativo de los marcadores AFLP en el análisis de la diversidad genética de papas nativas.

Genetic diversity of 25 morphotypes of native potatoes Solanum spp. from Chungui (La Mar, Ayacucho) were assess. Morphotypes collected were micropropagated in Murashigue Skoog medium (1962). DNA extraction proceeded using the CTAB method modified from 3 weeks leaves crop, good quality and quantity of DNA was able to use the AFLP. Enzymatic digestion of the DNA was performed using EcoRI and MseI. Three combinations of AFLP primers with three selective nucleotides were used, resulting in a total of 85 clearly discernable bands, of which 63 were polymorphic. The combination E37 - M50 showed the most informative polymorphic index content of 0.43. The presence/absence of polymorphic bands was evaluated using the Simple Matching coefficient similarity and clustering analysis using the UPGMA. The dendrogram produced had a cophenetic correlation coefficient r= 0.7. At the level 0.64 of Simple Matching coefficient similarity, the dendrogram grouped the morphotypes of native potatoes in 4 genetic groups, it not found duplicated morphotypes, despite having some morphotypes very similar. Our results would be showing the highly informative power of AFLP markers for the analysis of genetic diversity of native potatoes.

Effect of culture medium consistence and silver nitrate on micropropagation of two potato (Solanum tuberosum) cultivars / Efecto de la consistencia del medio de cultivo y del nitrato de plata en la micropropagación de dos cultivares de papa (Solanum tuberosum)

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the main crops of the Andes region in Venezuela where some S. tuberosum ssp. andigena cultivars are used, including Arbolona negra. Since 1946, the Andean cultivars have been slowly substituted with foreign potato seeds, for example cv. Granola from Germany. Potato micropropagation is an excellent alternative for the conservation of native cultivars, for the massive production of potato seeds and for the production of plantlets with adequate growth parameters that allow the study of potato-pathogen interactions. However, potato's vitroplants frequently show symptoms caused by ethylene accumulation in the culture flasks. In this work, we compare the in vitro response of Granola and Arbolona negra cultivars using MS semi-solid or liquid medium supplemented or not with AgNO3. These potato cultivars did not show epinasty or hyperhidricity symptoms caused by ethylene when were cultivated on MS (1962) semi-solid medium supplemented with AgNO3 2 mg l-1. Under these conditions, leaf area shows the highest values for both cultivars, but there were no differences in others growth parameters such as stem length or leaf number in comparison with plantlets cultivated on medium without AgNO3. These results allowed us to recommend the use of semi-solid medium supplemented with AgNO3 for the micropropagation of these two cultivars.

La papa (Solanum tuberosum L.) es uno de los principales cultivos de la región de los Andes de Venezuela, donde algunos cultivares de S. tuberosum ssp. andigena se utilizan, entre ellos, Arbolona negra. Desde 1946, los cultivares andinos han sido poco a poco sustituidos por cultivares comerciales, por ejemplo Granola de Alemania. La micropropagación es una excelente alternativa para la conservación de cultivares nativos de papa, para la producción masiva de semillas y para la producción de vitroplantas con parámetros de crecimiento adecuados que permitan el estudio de la interacción papa-patógeno. Sin embargo, las vitroplantas de papa frecuentemente muestran síntomas causados por la acumulación de etileno en los envases de cultivo. En este trabajo, se compara la respuesta in vitro de los cultivares Granola y Arbolona negra en medio MS semisólido o líquido suplementado o no con AgNO3. Estos cultivares no presentaron síntomas de hiperhidricidad o epinastia causados por el etileno cuando se cultivaron en medio MS (1962) semisólido suplementado con AgNO3 2 mg·l-1. Bajo estas condiciones el área foliar mostró los valores más altos para ambos cultivares, pero no hubo diferencias en los otros parámetros de crecimiento medidos tales como la longitud del tallo o el número de hojas en comparación con vitroplántulas cultivadas en medio sin AgNO3. Estos resultados nos permiten recomendar la utilización del medio semisólido suplementado con AgNO3 para la micropropagación de estos dos cultivares.

Diversidad genética de papas nativas ( Solanum spp.) conservadas en cultivares nativos del Perú

El presente trabajo analiza el grado de diversidad genética utilizando 18 marcadores micro-satélites, de una muestra aleatoria de 79 variedades nominales de papa nativa (Solanum spp.) procedentes de cinco regiones políticas del Perú (Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica y Puno), cultivadas en "chacras" de agricultores que colaboraron con el proyecto "Conservación in situ de los cultivos nativos y sus parientes silvestres". De los 18 marcadores, 17 amplifica-ron un solo locus polimórfico, siendo el promedio de alelos por locus de 8.79. Se obtuvo una similitud media de 0.62 y rangos de agrupamiento que varíaron desde 0.41 a 0.98. Para los 19 loci registrados se obtuvo un total de 166 alelos. La región de Cuzco presentó el mayor número de alelos (130 alelos). De los 166 alelos caracterizados, 72 alelos (43.37%) fueron comunes o compartidos con las 5 regiones de colecta. La región de Puno presento el mayor numero de alelos exclusivos (8 alelos). Las 42 variedades nominales de S. tuberosum subsp. andigena tuvieron una diversidad promedio de 0.74 y las 18 variedades nominales de S. x chaucha una diversidad promedio de 0.70. Los valores de polimorfismo (PIC = 0.55 - 0.85) y los índices de diversidad genética obtenidos indicarían que los microsatélites evaluados logran identificar altos niveles de diversidad genética, pero a la vez no son suficientes para discriminar grupos diferenciados por procedencia o especies. Nuestros análisis indican que existe un alto grado de diversidad genética y corroboran los resultados obtenidos de los inventarios y caracterizaciones morfológicas realizadas in situ; también podemos concluir que existiría un pool de genes común que se encontrarían ampliamente distribuidos entre las regiones estudiadas.

This paper analyzes the genetic diversity of 79 accessions of native potato varieties (Sola-num spp.) using 18 microsatellite markers. A random sample from Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica and Puno from "chacras" of farmers who collaborated with the "In situ conservation of native crops and wild relatives" were used. 17 markers amplified one single polymorphic locus, the mean number of alleles per locus was 8.79. The mean similarity was 0.62 and clustering indexes varied between 0.41 and 0.98. 19 loci showed a total of 166 alle-les. Cuzco had the highest number of alleles (130 alleles). Of the 166 characterized alleles, 72 alleles (43.37%) were common or shared with 5 sampling sites. Puno had the highest number of exclusive alleles (8 alleles). The 42 varieties of S. tuberosum subsp. andigena showed a mean diversity of 0.74 and 18 varieties of S. x chaucha an average diversity of 0.70. Polymorphism (PIC = 0.55 to 0.85) and genetic diversity indices show that microsatellites evaluated can identify high levels of genetic diversity, but also are not sufficient to discriminate differentiated by origin or species groups. Our analyzes indicate a high genetic diversity and are consistent with inventories and morphological characterizations performed in situ, we can also conclude that there would be a common pool of genes would be found widely distributed among the regions studied.