False memory in between-language conditions: a brief review on the effect of encoding and retrieving in different languages.

False memories have been extensively investigated over the past few decades using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, participants study lists of words associatively related to a non-presented critical lure. During a memory test, these critical lures are falsely recalled or recognized. Most studies have focused on false memories that arise when both encoding and retrieval are conducted in the same language (i.e., within-language conditions), which is typically the participant's native or first language (L1). However, much less is known about false memories when critical lures appear in the memory test in a different language than the studied lists (i.e., between-language conditions), being one of them the participant's second language (L2). The main objective of this exhaustive review was to provide an overview of the current state of research on false recognition using the DRM paradigm in between-language conditions, where languages are switched between encoding and retrieval (i.e., L1L2 versus L2L1). The results revealed a language dominance effect in between-language false memories. In other words, false recognition rates were dependent on the study language, with a trend toward higher false recognition when words were enconded in the L1 (L1L2) compared to when words were encoded in the L2 (L2L1). This review enhances our understanding of how studying words in a first or second language affects false memory in the DRM paradigm, emphasizing the significance of investigating false memory in second language speakers and the necessity for further research in the field.

False memory in a second language: The importance of controlling the knowledge of word meaning.

In the globalized world we live in, it is increasingly common for people to speak more than one language. Although research in psychology has been widely interested in the study of false memories with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, to date, there is a scarcity of studies comparing false memories in the first and the second language (L1 and L2, respectively). It is noteworthy that one of the most studied variables in the DRM paradigm, the backward associative strength (BAS), has hardly been studied in the L2. Moreover, the only study that recently examined this matter found differences in the knowledge of L2-word meaning between the high-BAS and low-BAS lists, which would hinder the interpretation of the BAS effect in L2 false memories. Taking all this into account, the current work examined false memories in the L1 (Spanish) and the L2 (English) as a function of BAS overcoming the limitations of the previous study. We selected DRM lists using both Spanish and English free association norms and lists were constructed to vary in BAS values while controlling the knowledge of word meaning. Results showed that false recognition was greater in the L1 or dominant language than in the L2 or non-dominant language. Furthermore, BAS modulated the false recognition in both the L1 and the L2. That is, false recognition was higher in high-BAS than low-BAS lists in both languages. Sensitivity index from the signal-detection theory helped us gain further insight into these results. The main findings are discussed in the light of theoretical models from both the false memory and the second language processing literature. Finally, practical implications and future research are provided.

"Choose it, and remember it": The impact of choice on destination memory.

Destination memory can be defined as the capacity to remember to whom we transmit information. It is measured through the accuracy of retrieving the association between the information we transmit and the person to whom we transmit it. A destination memory procedure aims to emulate human interaction by sharing facts with celebrities (i.e., familiar faces) since we often communicate with people we know. However, the role of the choice about who we intend to transmit the information to has not been evaluated before. This paper investigated whether deciding with whom to share a piece of information benefits destination memory. We designed two experiments with different levels of cognitive load, increasing it from Experiment 1 to Experiment 2. The experiments included two conditions: the choice condition, in which participants chose from two options to whom they desired to share a fact, and the no-choice condition, in which participants simply shared facts with celebrities without the possibility of a choice. Experiment 1 suggested that a choice component did not affect destination memory. However, when in Experiment 2 we raised the cognitive load by increasing the number of stimuli, we found that selecting the recipient during the more challenging task provided an advantage in destination memory. This result is congruent with the explanation that the shift of the participants' attentional resources to the recipient, caused by the choice component, leads to a destination memory improvement. In sum, it seems that a choice component can improve destination memory only under demanding attentional conditions.

Disentangling the Effects of Backward/Forward Associative Strength and Theme Identifiability in False Memory / Aislando el Papel de la Fuerza Asociativa Directa e Inversa y la Identificabilidad del Tema Sobre los Recuerdos Falsos

Background: False memory has been extensively studied using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm. Despitethe robustness of the effect, there is wide variability in the results, which is not fully understood. Method: Threeexperiments independently examined the role of backward associative strength (BAS), forward associative strength(FAS), and theme identifiability (ID) on false memories. In Experiment 1, lists varied in BAS while controlling FAS andID. In Experiment 2, FAS was manipulated while BAS and ID were controlled. Finally, in Experiment 3, lists variedin ID while controlling BAS and FAS. Data was analyzed using both frequentist and Bayesian analyses. Results: Wefound false memories in all three experiments. Specifically, false recognition was higher in high-BAS than in low-BASlists in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, false recognition was higher in high-FAS than in low-FAS lists. In Experiment3, false recognition was lower in high-ID than in low-ID lists. Conclusions: These findings suggest that both BAS andFAS—variables that promote error-inflating processes—and ID—which promotes error-editing processes—contributeindependently to the production of false memories. Splitting apart the role of these variables helps to understand thevariability of false memories and to extrapolate DRM tasks to explore other cognitive domains.(AU)

Antecedentes: las memorias falsas se han estudiado ampliamente utilizando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott. A pesar de la robustez del efecto, existe una amplia variabilidad de resultados que todavía no se comprendecompletamente. Método: tres experimentos examinaron independientemente el papel de la fuerza asociativa inversa(BAS), fuerza asociativa directa (FAS) e identificabilidad del tema (ID) en el reconocimiento falso (RF). Primero, semanipuló el BAS mientras se controló FAS e ID (Experimento 1). Segundo, se manipuló el FAS mientras se controlóBAS e ID (Experimento 2). Finalmente, se manipuló ID mientras se controló BAS y FAS (Experimento 3). Se utilizaronanálisis frecuentistas y bayesianos. Resultados: el RF fue mayor en las listas de alto que bajo BAS (Experimento 1), yalto que bajo FAS (Experimento 2). En cambio, el RF fue menor en las listas de alto ID que bajo ID (Experimento 3).Conclusiones: tanto BAS como FAS, variables que promueven procesos de inflación del error, pero también ID, quienpromueve procesos de edición del error, contribuyen de forma independiente a la producción de memorias falsas. Aislarel papel de estas variables ayuda a comprender la variabilidad de los falsos recuerdos y a extrapolar las tareas DRM paraexplorar otros dominios cognitivos.(AU)

Feelings of Contrast at Test Reduce False Memory in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm.

False memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm are explained in terms of the interplay between error-inflating and error-editing (e.g., monitoring) mechanisms. In this study, we focused on disqualifying monitoring, a decision process that helps to reject false memories through the recollection of collateral information (i.e., recall-to-reject strategies). Participants engage in recall-to-reject strategies using one or two metacognitive processes: (1) applying the logic of mutual exclusivity or (2) experiencing feelings of contrast between studied items and unstudied lures. We aimed to provide, for the first time in the DRM literature, evidence favorable to the existence of a recall-to-reject strategy based on the experience of feelings of contrast. One hundred and forty participants studied six-word DRM lists (e.g., spy, hell, fist, fight, abduction, mortal), simultaneously associated with three critical lures (e.g., WAR, BAD, FEAR). Lists differed in their ease to identify their critical lures (extremely low-BAS lists vs. high-BAS lists). At recognition test, participants saw either one or the three critical lures of the lists. Participants in the three-critical-lure condition were expected to increase their monitoring, as they would experience stronger feelings of contrast than the participants in the one-critical-lure condition. Results supported our hypothesis, showing lower false recognition in the three-critical-lure condition than in the one-critical-lure condition. Critically, in the three-critical-lure condition, participants reduced even more false memory when they could also resort to another monitoring strategy (i.e., identify-to-reject). These findings suggest that, in the DRM context, disqualifying monitoring could be guided by experiencing feelings of contrast between different types of words.

Questioning the Role of Forward Associative Strength in False Memories: Evidence From Deese-Roediger-McDermott Lists With Three Critical Lures.

We report an experiment examining the factors that produce false recognition in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. We selectively manipulated the probability that critical lures produce study items in free association, known as forward associative strength (FAS), while controlling the probability that study items produce critical lures in free association, known as backward associative strength (BAS). Results showed that false recognition of critical lures failed to differ between strong and weak FAS conditions. Follow-up correlational analyses further supported this outcome, showing that FAS was not correlated with false recognition, despite substantial variability in both variables across our stimulus sets. However, these correlational analyses did produce a significant and strong relationship between BAS and false recognition. These results support views that propose false memory is produced by activation spreading from study items to critical lures during encoding, which leads critical lures to be confused with episodically-experienced events.

The Role of Language Proficiency in False Memory: A Mini Review.

Memory errors and, specifically, false memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm have been extensively studied in the past decades. Most studies have investigated false memory in monolinguals' native or first language (L1), but interest has also grown in examining false memories in participants' second language (L2) with different proficiency levels. The main purpose of this manuscript is to review the current state of knowledge on the role of language proficiency on false memories when participants encode and retrieve information in the same language. To do so, a systematic literature search was conducted, and the available studies were reviewed. These studies differed in, for example, age, language proficiency, or material characteristics, including both high and low associative strength lists, and they reported different results. In this review, we attempted to make sense of the apparently contradictory results by carefully identifying participants' language dominance and L2 proficiency. Specifically, the results indicated that, first, people are more prone to produce false memories in their dominant than in their non-dominant language. This result generalizes to lists with high and low associative strength, as well as to participants of different ages. Second, false memories do not differ between two languages when speakers are equally proficient in both languages. Finally, highly proficient L2 speakers produce more false memories in their L2 than speakers with lower L2 proficiency. The results of this review will be considered in the light of the theoretical frameworks of false memories and bilingual language processing.

The effect of language proficiency and associative strength on false memory.

In two experiments we examined the role of language proficiency and associative strength in the production of false memory. We constructed Deese-Roediger-McDermott lists using both Spanish and English free association norms. Lists were constructed to vary in backward associative strength (BAS). Experiment 1 participants were native Spanish speakers with some proficiency in English while Experiment 2 participants were native Spanish participants that had either high, intermediate, or low English proficiency. Results showed that, in both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, false recognition was greater in participants' dominant language (L1 or Spanish) than in their non-dominant language (L2 or English), and false recognition in L2 increased with L2 proficiency when low-BAS lists were studied (Experiment 2). Further, false recognition was higher in high-BAS lists than in low-BAS lists in both L1 and L2. Finally, we collected a measure of participants' knowledge of our stimulus words in L2. These data showed that participants had far from perfect knowledge of all L2 stimuli. Analyses that factored out the effects of L2 word knowledge failed to alter the effects of L1 vs. L2, L2 proficiency and BAS on false recognition.

The role of backward associative strength in false recognition of DRM lists with multiple critical words / Papel de la fuerza asociativa inversa en el reconocimiento falso empleando listas DRM con múltiples palabras críticas

Background: Memory is a reconstruction of the past and is prone to errors. One of the most widely-used paradigms to examine false memory is the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, participants studied words associatively related to a non-presented critical word. In a subsequent memory test critical words are often falsely recalled and/or recognized. Method: In the present study, we examined the influence of backward associative strength (BAS) on false recognition using DRM lists with multiple critical words. In forty-eight English DRM lists, we manipulated BAS while controlling forward associative strength (FAS). Lists included four words (e.g., prison, convict, suspect, fugitive) simultaneously associated with two critical words (e.g., CRIMINAL, JAIL). Results: The results indicated that true recognition was similar in high-BAS and low-BAS lists, while false recognition was greater in high-BAS lists than in low-BAS lists. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between false recognition and the probability of a resonant connection between the studied words and their associates. Conclusions: These findings suggest that BAS and resonant connections influence false recognition, and extend prior research using DRM lists associated with a single critical word to studies of DRM lists associated with multiple critical words (AU)

Antecedentes: la memoria es reconstructiva y puede estar sujeta a errores. El paradigma más ampliamente utilizado para estudiar las memorias falsas es el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma se estudian palabras relacionadas con una palabra crítica no presentada, posteriormente recordándose y/o reconociéndose falsamente esta palabra crítica. Método: se analizó la influencia de la fuerza asociativa inversa (Backward Associative Strength, BAS) sobre el reconocimiento falso utilizando listas DRM con múltiples palabras críticas. Para ello se construyeron 48 listas DRM en inglés, manipulando el BAS mientras se controlaba la fuerza asociativa directa (Forward Associative Strength, FAS). Las listas incluían cuatro palabras (e.g., prison, convict, suspect, fugitive) asociadas simultáneamente con dos palabras críticas (e.g., CRIMINAL, JAIL). Resultados: el reconocimiento correcto era similar en las listas con alto y bajo BAS, mientras que el reconocimiento falso era mayor en las listas con alto BAS. Además, había una correlación positiva entre reconocimiento falso y la probabilidad de conexión resonante entre las palabras estudiadas y sus asociados. Conclusiones: los resultados confirman que el BAS y las conexiones resonantes afectan al reconocimiento falso, y amplían las conclusiones de anteriores estudios que empleaban listas con una palabra crítica al estudio de listas DRM con múltiples palabras críticas (AU)

False recognition in DRM lists with low association: a normative study / Reconocimiento falso en listas DRM con asociación baja: estudio normativo

A wide array of studies have explored memory distortions with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, where participants study lists of words (e.g., door, glass, pane, shade, ledge, etc.) that are associated to another nonpresented critical word (e.g., WINDOW). On a subsequent memory test, the critical word is often falsely recalled and recognized, even though the critical word was not studied. The present normative study provided false recognition indexes for 48 DRM lists in Spanish with three critical words per list. Lists were constructed with low levels of backward associative strength (BAS), never examined before. Results showed that, even with low association, DRM lists were able to produce false recognition (M = 34%). Also, and despite the low level of association, results showed that there was a wide variability in false recognition per list (e.g., 10% in List 24: ANIMAL [ANIMAL], GATO [CAT], PERRO [DOG], celo [heat], cola [tail], manso [docile], peludo [furry], zarpa [claw], presa [prey]; 62% in List 05: DOLOR [PAIN], MUERTE [DEATH], TRISTEZA [SADNESS], odio [hatred], hambre [hunger], inanición [starvation], morir [to die], huérfano [orphan], consolado [consoled]), replicating previous findings. These new DRM lists will allow researchers to explore false memory effects when words are weakly associated among them (AU)

Una gran variedad de estudios han explorado las distorsiones de la memoria con el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma, los participantes estudian listas de palabras (p.e., puerta, vidrio, cristal, persiana, cornisa, etc.) asociadas a otra palabra, no presentada, denominada palabra crítica (p.e., VENTANA). En una posterior prueba de memoria, la palabra crítica, a pesar de no haber sido estudiada, es a menudo recordada o reconocida falsamente. El presente estudio normativo proporciona índices de reconocimiento falso para 48 listas DRM en español con tres palabras críticas por lista. Las listas se construyeron con niveles bajos de fuerza asociativa inversa, niveles que nunca antes se habían examinados. Los resultados mostraron que, incluso con baja asociación, las listas DRM produjeron reconocimiento falso (M = 34%). Además, a pesar del bajo nivel de asociación, los resultados también mostraron que hubo una gran variabilidad en el reconocimiento falso obtenido en las diferentes listas (p.e., 10% en Lista 24: ANIMAL, GATO, PERRO, celo, cola, manso, peludo, zarpa, presa; 62% en Lista 05: DOLOR, MUERTE, TRISTEZA, odio, hambre, inanición, morir, huérfano, consolado), replicándose hallazgos previos. Estas nuevas listas DRM permitirán a los investigadores explorar el efecto de las memorias falsas cuando las palabras están débilmente asociadas entre sí (AU)

Memory Distortion and Its Avoidance: An Event-Related Potentials Study on False Recognition and Correct Rejection.

Memory researchers have long been captivated by the nature of memory distortions and have made efforts to identify the neural correlates of true and false memories. However, the underlying mechanisms of avoiding false memories by correctly rejecting related lures remains underexplored. In this study, we employed a variant of the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm to explore neural signatures of committing and avoiding false memories. ERP were obtained for True recognition, False recognition, Correct rejection of new items, and, more importantly, Correct rejection of related lures. With these ERP data, early-frontal, left-parietal, and late right-frontal old/new effects (associated with familiarity, recollection, and monitoring processes, respectively) were analysed. Results indicated that there were similar patterns for True and False recognition in all three old/new effects analysed in our study. Also, False recognition and Correct rejection of related lures activities seemed to share common underlying familiarity-based processes. The ERP similarities between False recognition and Correct rejection of related lures disappeared when recollection processes were examined because only False recognition presented a parietal old/new effect. This finding supported the view that actual false recollections underlie false memories, providing evidence consistent with previous behavioural research and with most ERP and neuroimaging studies. Later, with the onset of monitoring processes, False recognition and Correct rejection of related lures waveforms presented, again, clearly dissociated patterns. Specifically, False recognition and True recognition showed more positive going patterns than Correct rejection of related lures signal and Correct rejection of new items signature. Since False recognition and Correct rejection of related lures triggered familiarity-recognition processes, our results suggest that deciding which items are studied is based more on recollection processes, which are later supported by monitoring processes. Results are discussed in terms of Activation-Monitoring Framework and Fuzzy Trace-Theory, the most prominent explanatory theories of false memory raised with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm.

Normative study of theme identifiability: Instructions with and without explanation of the false memory effect.

False-memory illusions have been widely studied using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM). In this paradigm, words semantically related to a single nonpresented critical word are studied. In a later memory test, critical words are often falsely recalled and recognized. The present normative study was conducted to measure the theme identifiability of 60 associative word lists in Spanish that include six words (e.g., stove, coat, blanket, scarf, chill, and bonnet) that are simultaneously associated with three critical words (e.g., HEAT, COLD, and WINTER; Beato & Díez, Psicothema, 26, 457-463, 2011). Different levels of backward associative strength were used in the construction of the DRM lists. In addition, we used two types of instructions to obtain theme identifiability. In the without-explanation condition, traditional instructions were used, requesting participants to write the theme list. In the with-explanation condition, the false-memory effect and how the lists were built were explained, and an example of a DRM list and critical words was shown. Participants then had to discover the critical words. The results showed that all lists produced theme identifiability. Moreover, some lists had a higher theme identifiability rate (e.g., 61 % for the critical words LOVE, BOYFRIEND, COUPLE) than others (e.g., 24 % for CITY, PLACE, VILLAGE). After comparing the theme identifiabilities in the different conditions, the results indicated higher theme identifiability when the false-memory effect was explained than without such an explanation. Overall, these new normative data provide a useful tool for those experiments that, for example, aim to analyze the wide differences observed in false memory with DRM lists and the role of theme identifiability.

False recognition production indexes in forward associative strength (FAS) lists with three critical words / Índices de producción de reconocimiento falso en listas con tres palabras críticas construidas a partir de la fuerza asociativa directa

BACKGROUND: False memory illusions have been widely studied using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM). In this paradigm, participants study words semantically related to a single non presented critical word. In a memory test critical words are often falsely recalled and recognized. METHOD: The present study was conducted to measure the levels of false recognition for seventy-fi ve Spanish DRM word lists that have multiple critical words per list. Lists included three critical words (e.g., HELL, LUCEFER, and SATAN) simultaneously associated with six studied words (e.g., devil, demon, fi re, red, bad, and evil). Different levels of forward associative strength (FAS) between the critical words and their studied associates were used in the construction of the lists. Specifically, we selected lists with the highest FAS values possible and FAS was continuously decreased in order to obtain the 75 lists. RESULTS: Six wordsper list, simultaneously associated with three critical words, were sufficient to produce false recognition. Furthermore, there was wide variability in rates of false recognition (e.g., 53% for DUNGEON, PRISON, and GRATES; 1% for BRACKETS, GARMENT, and CLOTHING). Finally, there was no correlation between false recognition and associative strength

ANTECEDENTES: los recuerdos falsos han sido ampliamente estudiados usando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma se estudian palabras semánticamente relacionadas a una palabra crítica no presentada. En el posterior test de memoria frecuentemente las palabras críticas se recuerdan o reconocen falsamente. MÉTODO: en este estudio se han obtenido los niveles de reconocimiento falso para 75 listas DRM en castellano. Las listas incluían tres palabras críticas (e.g., INFIERNO, LUCIFER, SATÁN) simultáneamente asociadas a seis palabras estudiadas (e.g., diablo, demonio, fuego, rojo, malo, mal). Para construir las listas se usaron diferentes niveles de fuerza asociativa directa entre las palabras críticas y sus asociados estudiados. Concretamente, se seleccionaron listas con el mayor nivel de fuerza asociativa posible y progresivamente se fue disminuyendo la fuerza asociativa hasta obtener las 75 listas. RESULTADOS: seis palabras por lista, simultáneamente asociadas a tres palabras críticas, fueron suficientes para producir reconocimiento falso. Además, había una amplia variabilidad en el rango de reconocimiento falso obtenido (e.g., 53% para MAZMORRA, PRISIÓN y REJAS; 1% para CORCHETES, PRENDA y TEXTIL). Finalmente, no había correlación entre el reconocimiento falso y la fuerza asociativa. CONCLUSIONES: la variabilidad en el reconocimiento falso no se puede relacionar con diferencias en la fuerza asociativa directa

False recognition production indexes in forward associative strength (FAS) lists with three critical words.

BACKGROUND: False memory illusions have been widely studied using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM). In this paradigm, participants study words semantically related to a single nonpresented critical word. In a memory test critical words are often falsely recalled and recognized. METHOD: The present study was conducted to measure the levels of false recognition for seventy-five Spanish DRM word lists that have multiple critical words per list. Lists included three critical words (e.g., HELL, LUCEFER, and SATAN) simultaneously associated with six studied words (e.g., devil, demon, fire, red, bad, and evil). Different levels of forward associative strength (FAS) between the critical words and their studied associates were used in the construction of the lists. Specifically, we selected lists with the highest FAS values possible and FAS was continuously decreased in order to obtain the 75 lists. RESULTS: Six words per list, simultaneously associated with three critical words, were sufficient to produce false recognition. Furthermore, there was wide variability in rates of false recognition (e.g., 53% for DUNGEON, PRISON, and GRATES; 1% for BRACKETS, GARMENT, and CLOTHING). Finally, there was no correlation between false recognition and associative strength. CONCLUSIONS: False recognition variability could not be attributed to differences in the forward associative strength.

No effect of stress on false recognition / Ausencia de efecto del estrés sobre el reconocimiento falso

Background: The present study aimed to analyze the effect of acute stress on false recognition in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, lists of words associated with a non-presented critical lure are studied and, in a subsequent memory test, critical lures are often falsely remembered. Method: In two experiments, participants were randomly assigned to either the stress group (Trier Social Stress Test) or the nostress control group. Because we sought to control the level-of-processing at encoding, in Experiment 1, participants created a visual mental image for each presented word (deep encoding). In Experiment 2, participants performed a shallow encoding (to respond whether each word contained the letter “o”). Results: The results indicated that, in both experiments, as predicted, heart rate and STAI-S scores increased only in the stress group. However, false recognition did not differ across stress and nostress groups. Conclusions: Results suggest that, although psychosocial stress was successfully induced, it does not enhance the vulnerability of individuals with acute stress to DRM false recognition, regardless of the level of processing (AU)

Antecedentes: en este estudio se analiza el efecto del estrés agudo sobre el reconocimiento falso empleando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma se estudian listas de palabras asociadas a una palabra crítica no presentada, palabras a menudo falsamente recordadas en una posterior prueba de memoria. Método: se realizaron dos experimentos en los que los participantes se distribuían aleatoriamente en dos grupos: grupo estrés (Trier Social Stress Test) y grupo control no-estrés. En los dos experimentos se controló el nivel de procesamiento empleado durante la codificación. En el Experimento 1, los participantes debían crear una imagen visual mental para cada palabra estudiada (codificación profunda). En el Experimento 2, los participantes realizaban una codificación superficial (responder si cada palabra contenía la letra “o”). Resultados: los resultados indicaban que, en ambos experimentos, como se predecía, la tasa cardiaca y las puntuaciones en el STAI-E aumentaban solo en el grupo estrés. En cambio, el reconocimiento falso no difería entre los grupos. Conclusiones: los datos sugieren que, aunque se consiguió inducir adecuadamente estrés psicosocial, no se incrementó la vulnerabilidad de los individuos sometidos a estrés al reconocimiento falso, con independencia del nivel de procesamiento que se hubiera empleado (AU)

Modality-match effect in false recognition: an event-related potential study.

In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, participants falsely recall or recognize a nonpresented word (critical lure), highly associated with previously studied words. As numerous DRM studies have found a robust false memory effect at the behavioural level, event-related potentials (ERPs) studies have searched for possible overlapping in brain electrical activity between true and false memory. Using the DRM paradigm, the present experiment manipulated the sensory modality of stimulus presentation (auditory vs. visual) in the study phase to analyse the effect of modality match between study and test on true and false recognition. Words were therefore presented either visually or auditorily at study and always visually at test. True recognition was found to be significantly higher in the modality 'match' condition (visual-visual) than in the 'mismatch' condition (auditory-visual), whereas there was no modality-match effect on false recognition of critical lures. A general, overlapping was found between ERP correlates of true and false recognition: FN400 (300-500 ms), left-parietal (400-800 ms) and late right-frontal (1000-1500 ms) old/new effects were similar for both studied words and critical lures. No sensory modality-match effect was associated with FN400 or left-parietal old/new effects. Only the late right-frontal activity was modulated by modality manipulation, with significantly more positive ERPs in the modality-match condition. Sensory modality match of stimulus presentation, therefore, dissociated true and false recognition memory only at the behavioural level but not at the ERP level. Overall, true and false recognition memories seem to share common underlying processes.

No effect of stress on false recognition.

BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to analyze the effect of acute stress on false recognition in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, lists of words associated with a non-presented critical lure are studied and, in a subsequent memory test, critical lures are often falsely remembered. METHOD: In two experiments, participants were randomly assigned to either the stress group (Trier Social Stress Test) or the no-stress control group. Because we sought to control the level-of-processing at encoding, in Experiment 1, participants created a visual mental image for each presented word (deep encoding). In Experiment 2, participants performed a shallow encoding (to respond whether each word contained the letter "o"). RESULTS: The results indicated that, in both experiments, as predicted, heart rate and STAI-S scores increased only in the stress group. However, false recognition did not differ across stress and no-stress groups. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that, although psychosocial stress was successfully induced, it does not enhance the vulnerability of individuals with acute stress to DRM false recognition, regardless of the level of processing.

Reconocimiento falso y ansiedad estado/rasgo / False recognition and state/trait anxiety

En este estudio se analiza la relación entre la ansiedad estado/rasgo (STAI, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) y el reconocimiento falso empleando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma, los participantes estudian palabras altamente asociadas a una palabra crítica no presentada; posteriormente, en el test de reconocimiento la palabra crítica se reconoce falsamente. Se presentaron 10 listas de palabras a 161 participantes para estudiar las ilusiones asociativas de memoria. Los resultados mostraron que no existía correlación entre la ansiedad, ni en su modalidad estado ni en su modalidad rasgo, y el reconocimiento falso. Solamente encontramos la esperada correlación positiva entre ansiedad estado y ansiedad rasgo. Posteriormente, los datos obtenidos se analizaron teniendo en cuenta las puntuaciones extremas en ansiedad según el STAI. Así, se comparó el reconocimiento falso de los individuos con alta y baja ansiedad estado, por un lado, y con alta y baja ansiedad rasgo, por otro. De nuevo, los análisis indicaron que no existían diferencia en el nivel de reconocimiento falso ni entre los grupos de alta/baja ansiedad estado ni entre los grupos de alta/baja ansiedad rasgo. En conclusión, estos resultados sugieren que los individuos con alta ansiedad no son más susceptibles a producir ilusiones asociativas de memoria que los individuos con baja ansiedad(AU)

The present study analyzed the relationship between state/trait anxiety and false recognition using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, participants study words that are highly associated with a non-presented critical lure; subsequently, when a memory test is administered, the critical lure is consistently recognized falsely. Ten 10-word DRM lists were presented to 161 participants to study associative memory illusions. The results showed no correlation between anxiety (either state or trait assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; STAI) and false recognition. Only the expected positive correlation between state anxiety and trait anxiety was found. Thereafter, the results were analyzed according to extreme scores on the STAI. So, high state anxiety individuals were compared with low state anxiety individuals in false recognition, and the same was done with individuals with high versus low trait anxiety. Again, these detailed analyses revealed no differences on the level of false recognition, neither between high/low state anxiety nor between high/low trait anxiety. In conclusion, these findings suggest that individuals with high state anxiety and individuals with high trait anxiety were no more prone to produce associative illusions of memory than individuals with low state and trait anxiet(AU)

False memory and level of processing effect: an event-related potential study.

Event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to determine the effects of level of processing on true and false memory, using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In the DRM paradigm, lists of words highly associated to a single nonpresented word (the 'critical lure') are studied and, in a subsequent memory test, critical lures are often falsely remembered. Lists with three critical lures per list were auditorily presented here to participants who studied them with either a shallow (saying whether the word contained the letter 'o') or a deep (creating a mental image of the word) processing task. Visual presentation modality was used on a final recognition test. True recognition of studied words was significantly higher after deep encoding, whereas false recognition of nonpresented critical lures was similar in both experimental groups. At the ERP level, true and false recognition showed similar patterns: no FN400 effect was found, whereas comparable left parietal and late right frontal old/new effects were found for true and false recognition in both experimental conditions. Items studied under shallow encoding conditions elicited more positive ERP than items studied under deep encoding conditions at a 1000-1500 ms interval. These ERP results suggest that true and false recognition share some common underlying processes. Differential effects of level of processing on true and false memory were found only at the behavioral level but not at the ERP level.

Falso reconocimiento en listas DRM con tres palabras críticas: Asociación directa vs. inversa / False recognition in DRM lists with three critical words: Forward vs. Backward association

En este trabajo se ha estudiado el falso reconocimiento utilizando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). Concretamente, se ha analizado el efecto diferencial de la fuerza asociativa directa e inversa sobre el falso reconocimiento, a la vez que se ha estudiado el papel desempeñado por el alto o bajo nivel de asociación de las listas en este tipo de ilusiones asociativas de memoria. Se emplearon 16 listas compuestas por 6 palabras asociadas y 3 palabras críticas. Ocho listas se construyeron a partir de la fuerza asociativa directa y ocho a partir de la fuerza asociativa inversa. Se controlaron los niveles de asociación de las listas para que las listas fueran comparables entre sí en cuanto a nivel de asociación, existiendo dos grupos en función del alto o bajo nivel de asociación. Los resultados mostraron que las listas DRM con 3 palabras críticas producían falso reconocimiento, siendo adecuada su utilización en procedimientos experimentales que requieran emplear más de un ensayo crítico por lista. Al comparar los diferentes tipos de listas, los análisis indicaban que el porcentaje de falso reconocimiento de las listas con baja fuerza asociativa directa (19.50%) era significativamente más bajo que el falso reconocimiento del resto de las listas (alta y baja fuerza asociativa inversa y alta fuerza asociativa directa), donde el falso reconocimiento superaba el 42%(AU)

False recognition (FR) was studied in one experiment using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Specifically, the differential contributions of forward associative strength and backward associative strength were analyzed, together with an analysis of the role played by the associative level of the lists on this kind of memory illusion. Materials consisted of 16 lists, each was formed by 6 to-beremembered associates and 3 critical, never studied, words. Eight lists were constructed on the basis of forward associative strength, and the other 8 lists were constructed on the basis of backward associative strength. In all cases, the lists were matched for level of association, and further divided into two sets, to obtain comparable lists of each type with high and low associative levels. The results showed that, globally, DRM lists with 3 critical words produced robust levels of false recognition, rendering them appropriate for experimental procedures that require more than one critical trial per list. A comparison of the different types of lists revealed that false recognition with low forward-associative-strength lists (19.50%) was significantly lower than with the other 3 types of lists (low and high backward-associative-strength, and high forward-associative-strength), for which false recognition exceeded 42%(AU)