Effects of Deposition Temperature and Working Pressure on the Thermal and Nanomechanical Performances of Stoichiometric Cu3N: An Adaptable Material for Photovoltaic Applications.

The pursuit of efficient, profitable, and ecofriendly materials has defined solar cell research from its inception to today. Some materials, such as copper nitride (Cu3N), show great promise for promoting sustainable solar technologies. This study employed reactive radio-frequency magnetron sputtering using a pure nitrogen environment to fabricate quality Cu3N thin films to evaluate how both temperature and gas working pressure affect their solar absorption capabilities. Several characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nanoindentation, and photothermal deflection spectroscopy (PDS), were used to determine the main properties of the thin films. The results indicated that, at room temperature, it is possible to obtain a material that is close to stoichiometric Cu3N material (Cu/N ratio ≈ 3) with (100) preferred orientation, which was lost as the substrate temperature increases, demonstrating a clear influence of this parameter on the film structure attributed to nitrogen re-emission at higher temperatures. Raman microscopy confirmed the formation of Cu-N bonds within the 628-637 cm-1 range. In addition, the temperature and the working pressure significantly also influence the film hardness and the grain size, affecting the elastic modulus. Finally, the optical properties revealed suitable properties at lower temperatures, including bandgap values, refractive index, and Urbach energy. These findings underscore the potential of Cu3N thin films in solar energy due to their advantageous properties and resilience against defects. This research paves the way for future advancements in efficient and sustainable solar technologies.

Elimination of Interface Energy Barriers Using Dendrimer Polyelectrolytes with Fractal Geometry.

In this work we study conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) films based on polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers of generations G1 and G3. These fractal macromolecules are compared to branched polyethylenimine (b-PEI) polymer using methanol as the solvent. All of these materials present a high density of amino groups, which protonated by methoxide counter-anions create strong dipolar interfaces. The vacuum level shift associated to these films on n-type silicon was 0.93 eV for b-PEI, 0.72 eV for PAMAM G1 and 1.07 eV for PAMAM G3. These surface potentials were enough to overcome Fermi level pinning, which is a typical limitation of aluminium contacts on n-type silicon. A specific contact resistance as low as 20 mΩ·cm2 was achieved with PAMAM G3, in agreement with the higher surface potential of this material. Good electron transport properties were also obtained for the other materials. Proof-of-concept silicon solar cells combining vanadium oxide as a hole-selective contact with these new electron transport layers have been fabricated and compared. The solar cell with PAMAM G3 surpassed 15% conversion efficiency with an overall increase of all the photovoltaic parameters. The performance of these devices correlates with compositional and nanostructural studies of the different CPE films. Particularly, a figure-of-merit (Vσ) for CPE films that considers the number of protonated amino groups per macromolecule has been introduced. The fractal geometry of dendrimers leads to a geometric increase in the number of amino groups per generation. Thus, investigation of dendrimer macromolecules seems a very good strategy to design CPE films with enhanced charge-carrier selectivity.

Impact of the RF Power on the Copper Nitride Films Deposited in a Pure Nitrogen Environment for Applications as Eco-Friendly Solar Absorber.

This material can be considered to be an interesting eco-friendly choice to be used in the photovoltaic field. In this work, we present the fabrication of Cu3N thin films by reactive radio-frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering at room temperature, using nitrogen as the process gas. Different RF power values ranged from 25 to 200 W and gas pressures of 3.5 and 5 Pa were tested to determine their impact on the film properties. The morphology and structure were exhaustively examined by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopies and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), respectively. The AFM micrographs revealed different morphologies depending on the total pressure used, and rougher surfaces when the films were deposited at the lowest pressure; whereas FTIR and Raman spectra exhibited the characteristics bands related to the Cu-N bonds of Cu3N. Such bands became narrower as the RF power increased. XRD patterns showed the (100) plane as the preferred orientation, that changed to (111) with the RF power, revealing a worsening in structural quality. Finally, the band gap energy was estimated from transmission spectra carried out with a Perkin Elmer 1050 spectrophotometer to evaluate the suitability of Cu3N as a light absorber. The values obtained demonstrated the capability of Cu3N for solar energy conversion applications, indicating a better film performance under the sputtering conditions 5.0 Pa and RF power values ranged from 50 to 100 W.

Observation of Room Temperature Photoluminescence from Asymmetric CuGaO2/ZnO/ZnMgO Multiple Quantum Well Structures.

Asymmetric (CuGaO2/ZnO/ZnMgO) and symmetric (ZnMgO/ZnO/ZnMgO) multiple quantum well (MQW) structures were successfully fabricated using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and their comparison were made. Efficient room temperature photoluminescent (PL) emission was observed from these MQWs and temperature dependent luminescence of asymmetric and symmetric MQWs can be explained using the existing theories. A systematic blue shift was observed in both MQWs with decrease in the confinement layer thickness which could be attributed to the quantum confinement effects. The PL emission from asymmetric and symmetric MQW structures were blue shifted compared to 150 nm thick ZnO thin film grown by PLD due to quantum confinement effects.

Expression of xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) genes and XET activity in ethylene treated apple and tomato fruits.

Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTHs: EC 2.4.1.207 and/or EC 3.2.1.151), a xyloglucan modifying enzyme, has been proposed to have a role during tomato and apple fruit ripening by loosening the cell wall. Since the ripening of climacteric fruits is controlled by endogenous ethylene biosynthesis, we wanted to study whether XET activity was ethylene-regulated, and if so, which specific genes encoding ripening-regulated XTH genes were indeed ethylene-regulated. XET specific activity in tomato and apple fruits was significantly increased by the ethylene treatment, as compared with the control fruits, suggesting an increase in the XTH gene expression induced by ethylene. The 25 SlXTH protein sequences of tomato and the 11 sequences MdXTH of apple were phylogenetically analyzed and grouped into three major clades. The SlXTHs genes with highest expression during ripening were SlXTH5 and SlXTH8 from Group III-B, and in apple MdXTH2, from Group II, and MdXTH10, and MdXTH11 from Group III-B. Ethylene was involved in the regulation of the expression of different SlXTH and MdXTH genes during ripening. In tomato fruit fifteen different SlXTH genes showed an increase in expression after ethylene treatment, and the SlXTHs that were ripening associated were also ethylene dependent, and belong to Group III-B (SlXTH5 and SlXTH8). In apple fruit, three MdXTH showed an increase in expression after the ethylene treatment and the only MdXTH that was ripening associated and ethylene dependent was MdXTH10 from Group III-B. The results indicate that XTH may play an important role in fruit ripening and a possible relationship between XTHs from Group III-B and fruit ripening, and ethylene regulation is suggested.

Serine biosynthesis by photorespiratory and non-photorespiratory pathways: an interesting interplay with unknown regulatory networks.

Photorespiration is a primary metabolic pathway, which, given its energy costs, has often been viewed as a wasteful process. Despite having reached the consensus that one important function of photorespiration is the removal of toxic metabolite intermediates, other possible functions have emerged, and others could well emerge in the future. As a primary metabolic pathway, photorespiration interacts with other routes; however the nature of these interactions is not well known. One of these interacting pathways could be the biosynthesis of serine, since this amino acid is synthesised through photorespiratory and non-photorespiratory routes. At present, the exact contribution of each route to serine supply in different tissues and organs, their biological significance and how pathways are integrated and/or regulated remain unknown. Here, we review the non-photorespiratory serine biosynthetic pathways, their interactions with the photorespiratory pathway, their putative role in plants and their biotechnological interest.

[Congenital myogenic blepharoptosis: indications of treatment and results of 50 cases]. / Blefaroptosis miogénica congénita: indicaciones de tratamiento y resultados en 50 casos.

OBJECTIVE: To present results of 50 cases of congentital blepharoptosis and to revise indications for surgical treatment. METHODS: Retrospective, non-comparative interventional case series of 50 patients with congenital myogenic blepharoptosis. Results were evaluated on a subjective scale. RESULTS: Good or excellent results in a subjective scale (4/5 or 5/5) were found in 35% of patients with good levator function; 70% in patients with moderate to slight blepharoptosis and bad or no levator function; 42% in patients with moderate blephatoptosis and good levator function and 100% in patients with severe blepharoptosis and bad or no levator function. CONCLUSIONS: Congenital blepharoptosis is a relativelly frequent malformation with sthetic involvement and with a lack of proper development of visual function in most severe cases. Except in these cases, it is advisable to wait for treatment, normally between 4-6 years of age. A correct assessment of every case will help us indicate the most adequate surgical technique.

Blefaroptosis miogénica congénita: indicaciones de tratamiento y resultados en 50 casos / Congenital myogenic blepharoptosis: indications of treatment and results of 50 cases

Objetivo. Presentar los resultados de 50 casos de ptosis congénitasmiopáticas y revisar indicaciones de tratamiento. Material y método. Estudio retrospectivo, no comparativo, intervencional de 50 pacientes con ptosis palpebral miogénica. Se evalúan resultados según una escala subjetiva. Resultados. Consideramos como resultados muy buenos o excelentes con valoración 4/5 o 5/5: 35% de pacientes con buena función del elevador; 70% en los pacientes con ptosis moderada o leve con mala o nula función del elevador, 42% en los pacientes con moderada ptosis y buena función del elevador y 100% en pacientes con ptosis severa con mala o nula función del elevador. Conclusiones. La ptosis palpebral congénita es una malformación relativamente frecuente con implicaciones estéticas y funcionales, que puede llevar a la disminución de la agudeza visual. Salvo en estos últimos casos que precisan un tratamiento precoz es conveniente esperar al momento más adecuado para su tratamiento, normalmente entre los4 y 6 años. Una evaluación correcta de cada caso nos permitirá elegirla técnica quirúrgica más adecuada (AU)

Ojective. To present results of 50 cases of congentital blepharoptosis and to revise indications for surgical treatment. Methods. Retrospective, non-comparative interventional case series of 50 patients with congenital myogenic blepharoptosis. Results were evaluated on a subjective scale. Results. Good or excellent results in a subjective scale (4/5 or 5/5)were found in 35% of patients with good levator function; 70% in patients with moderate to slight blepharoptosis and bad or no levator function;42% in patients with moderate blephatoptosis and good levator function and 100% in patients with severe blepharoptosis and bad or no levator function. Conclusions. Congenital blepharoptosis is a relativelly frequent malformation with sthetic involvement and with a lack of proper development of visual function in most severe cases. Except in these cases, it is advisable to wait for treatment, normally between 4-6 years of age. A correct assessment of every case will help us indicate the most adequate surgical technique (AU)

[Upper eyelid surgery for treatment of congenital blepharoptosis]. / Cirugía del párpado superior para el tratamiento de las ptosis congénitas.

OBJECTIVE: [corrected] To revise techniques and indications for surgical treatment of childhood blepharoptosis. METHODS: Review of the medical literature and case reports. RESULTS: The treatment of blepharoptosis is not easy. There are different techniques for its correction, depending on invasivity and aetiological approach. Most used techniques are resection of the levator muscle through a skin incision in moderate ptosis and frontal suspension for severe cases. The indication of each technique depends on the type of ptosis, severity, features of levator muscle and age. CONCLUSIONS: Simple congenital ptosis is the most frequent type of ptosis in children although is necessary to consider types associated to rectus superior palsy, blepharofimosis syndrome and Marcus-Gunn phenomenon. It is important to evaluate ptosis severity and its repercussions on visual acuity and compensating torticolli. The timing for surgical treatment varies depending on age, severity and laterality.

Cirugía del párpado superior para el tratamiento de las ptosis congénitas / Upper eyelid surgery for treatment of congenital blepharoptosis

Objetivo. Revisión de las técnicas quirúrgicas e indicaciones de tratamiento en las ptosis palpebrales en edad pediátrica. Material y método. Revisión de la literatura médica y de series de casos clínicos. Resultados. El tratamiento de la caída del párpado superior no es fácil. Existen diferentes técnicas para su corrección, que varían en grado de invasividad y en su abordaje etiopatogénico. Las técnicas más usadas son la resección del elevador por vía anterior en ptosis moderadas y la suspensión frontal con material sintético para formas severas. La indicación de cada técnica depende del tipo de ptosis congénita, y fundamentalmente de su gravedad, de las características del músculo elevador del párpado superior y de la edad. Conclusiones. La ptosis congénita simple es la causa más frecuente de caída del párpado superior en el niño si bien hay que considerar también los casos con parálisis de recto superior, el síndrome de blefarofimosis o el fenómeno de Marcun Gunn. Es importante evaluar la gravedad de la ptosis y la repercusión visual que ésta pueda tener en la agudeza visual y tortícolis compensadora. El momento de la intervención quirúrgica varía según la edad, gravedad y lateralidad de la ptosis (AU)

OJECTIVE: To revise techniques and indications for surgical treatment of childhood blepharoptosis. METHODS: Review of the medical literature and case reports. RESULTS: The treatment of blepharoptosis is not easy. There are different techniques for its correction, depending on invasivity and aetiological approach. Most used techniques are resection of the levator muscle through a skin incision in moderate ptosis and frontal suspension for severe cases. The indication of each technique depends on the type of ptosis, severity, features of levator muscle and age. CONCLUSIONS: Simple congenital ptosis is the most frequent type of ptosis in children although is necessary to consider types associated to rectus superior palsy, blepharofimosis syndrome and Marcus-Gunn phenomenon. It is important to evaluate ptosis severity and its repercussions on visual acuity and compensating torticolli. The timing for surgical treatment varies depending on age, severity and laterality (AU)

Desarrollo de una nueva metodología para la valoración de la movilidad cervical basada en técnicas de fotogrametría / Development of a new methodology for the assessment of cervical mobility based on photogrammetry techniques

Introducción. La inexistencia de métodos objetivos, fiables y precisos de valoración funcional de la movilidad de la columna cervical dificulta la elección de un adecuado tratamiento rehabilitador y posterior control de su evolución en pacientes afectados de dolor cervical. Todo esto ha planteado la necesidad de desarrollar una nueva metodología de valoración de la movilidad cervical a partir de técnicas de vídeo-fotogrametría y de definición de los patrones de movilidad en función de las variables edad y género. Material y métodos. Para la realización del estudio se ha seleccionado una muestra de 50 personas de edades comprendidas entre 20 y 79 años, con ausencia de patología cervical. También se ha realizado un estudio piloto con 14 personas afectadas de dolor cervical. El equipo de medida está basado en un sistema de video-fotogrametría. Los movimientos que se registraron fueron el de flexo-extensión, inclinación lateral y el de rotación de la cabeza. Resultados. Cabe destacar la alta influencia de las variables edad y sexo en los rangos de movimiento, además de la disminución de los rangos de movilidad en los pacientes aquejados de latigazo cervical cuya significación también es muy alta. Discusión. Se ha demostrado que la metodología presentada en el siguiente trabajo resulta una herramienta muy útil para la valoración funcional de la movilidad de la columna cervical, mejorando la precisión y la fiabilidad de los resultados obtenidos y permitiendo realizar un tratamiento rehabilitador de un modo más eficaz y controlado

Introduction. The non-existence of objective, reliable and precise methods of functional valuation of the cervical spine mobility makes difficult the election of a suitable rehabilitation treatment and subsequent control of its evolution in affected patients of cervical pain. All this has raised the need of developing a new methodology of cervical mobility valuation based on video-photogrammetry techniques and to define the patterns of mobility based on the parameters age and gender. Material and methods. For the accomplishment of the study a sample of 50 people aged between 20 and 79 years with absence of cervical pathology has been selected. Besides, a pilot study was made with 14 affected people of cervical pain. The measuring equipment is based on a video-photogrammetry system. The movements that were registered were flexo-extension, lateral flexion and rotation of the head. Results. It is possible to emphasize the high influence of the variables age and sex in the movement ranges, in addition to the diminution of the ranges of mobility in patients affected of whiplash injury whose meaning also is very high. Discusion. The methodology presented in the present work has been demonstrated as a useful tool for the functional valuation of the cervical spine mobility, improving the accuracy and the reliability of the obtained results and allowing making a rehabilitation treatment in a more effective and controlled way

Determinación de parámetros cinéticos en las pruebas de equilibrio y marcha de pacientes con latigazo cervical / Measurement of kinetic parameters in the balance and gait of patients with whiplash

Introducción. La sintomatología referida como sensación de inestabilidad es muy habitual en pacientes que han sufrido un latigazo cervical. Se trata de un grupo de pacientes en el que habitualmente las pruebas de diagnóstico complementario no ofrecen hallazgos de interés. Pretendemos encontrar hallazgos comunes a la población con latigazo cervical que nos permitan diferenciarla de la sana. Material y métodos. Estudiamos una muestra de 30 pacientes que sufrieron un latigazo cervical en 2004 (7 hombres y 23 mujeres, con edades entre 20 y 72 años). Todos cumplimentaron dos escalas de valoración (Tinetti y Berg) y un estudio de posturografía con plataforma dinamométrica. Comparamos los datos obtenidos en la posturografía con población sana. Resultados. Se han encontrado diferencias significativas en la mayor parte de las pruebas analizadas, sobre todo en la valoración global (23,735). Las pruebas de Romberg con gomaespuma fueron las más sensibles para diferenciar ambas poblaciones (6,966 y 14,258). En las escalas de valoración utilizadas los datos fueron idénticos a la población sana. Los índices sensoriales también se vieron alterados, sobre todo el somatosensorial (21,075) y el vestibular (17,905). Los pacientes con latigazo cervical utilizaron de forma predominante la estrategia de cadera o medio-lateral (56,994) para compensar su inestabilidad. Conclusión. El análisis de los parámetros cinéticos de las pruebas de equilibrio y marcha, a diferencia de las escalas de valoración, permite diferenciar la población con latigazo cervical de la sana. Las pruebas más sensibles son las de Romberg con gomaespuma (ojos abiertos y cerrados)

Introduction. The symptomatology explained as sensation of instability is very usual in patients who have suffered a whiplash injury. In this type of patients the complementary tests of diagnosis do not usually offer findings of interest. With this work we aim to look for common findings to the population suffering whiplash injury so as to differentiate them from the healthy population. Methodology. A sample of 30 patients who suffered a whiplash injury in 2004 (7 men and 23 women, with ages between 20 and 72 years) was studied. All of them filled out the evaluation scales of Tinetti and Berg and performed a study based on gait and balance analysis with a dynamometric platform. Their results were compared to the data of healthy population. Results. Significant differences in most of the tests have been found, especially in the global evaluation (23.735). Romberg tests with foam were the most sensitive to differentiate both populations (6.966 and 14.258). The results obtained from the evaluation scales showed no differences between both groups. The sensorial indexes were also altered, above all, somatosensorial (21.075) and vestibular (17.905). Patients with whiplash injury predominantly used the hip or middle-lateral strategy (56.994) to compensate their instability. Conclusion. The analysis of the kinetic parameters obtained from the tests of balance and gait, unlike the evaluation scales, makes it possible to differentiate the population with whiplash injury from the healthy one. The most suitable tests are those of Romberg with foam (open and closed eyes)

[Determination of postural behaviour patterns in the Spanish healthy population]. / Determinación de los patrones de comportamiento postural en población sana española.

INTRODUCTION: Postural control in a standing position is externally reflected by the displacement of the centre of pressure (COP). It is necessary to determine COP movement normal patterns in order to obtain an accurate balance assessment. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY: A non pathological subject group was studied using NED/IBV s. v. e. evaluation equipment. Static trials based on Romberg's test were undertaken in addition to the analysis trials of voluntary postural control. RESULTS: Normal patterns have been obtained for the COP displacement and for the maximum forces produced in the anteroposterior and midlateral axes. CONCLUSIONS: COP movement comparative analysis, related to postural behaviour patterns of non-pathological persons, represents an accurate method to assess postural balance in a standing position. This information enables the design of individual and customised rehabilitation strategies in order to reduce the risk of falling.

Regeneration of herbicide-tolerant black locust transgenic plants by SAAT.

A protocol based on SAAT (sonication-assisted Agrobacterium-mediated transformation) has been developed to obtain herbicide-resistant transgenic black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) plants. Cotyledon explants were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium AGL1 strain carrying the pTAB16 plasmid (bar and gusA genes). The effects of bacterial concentration (OD550 of 0.3, 0.6, 0.8) and method of infection (sonication vs immersion) on bacterial delivery were determined by assaying cotyledons for transient beta-glucuronidase expression 3 days after infection. SAAT increases transient expression efficiency especially at an OD550 of 0.6. After determining bacterial concentration and infection method, other factors affecting transformation efficiency, such as explant preconditioning and period of time before applying selection, were tested. From these experiments, the preferred protocol for black locust cotyledon transformation should include sonication of preconditioned cotyledons in AGL1 suspension, coculture for 3 days with 100 microM acetosyringone and transfer to selection medium with 4 mg/l phosphinothricin and 150 mg/l timentin. Of the initial explants, 2% produced at least one transgenic shoot. Genetic transformation was confirmed by Southern hybridization, chlorophenol red assay and herbicide tolerance of the regenerated plants.

[Characterization of the resistance to combinations of beta lactams and inhibitors of beta-lactamases in Escherichia coli. Effect of the type and amount of beta-lactamase production]. / Caracterización de la resistencia a asociaciones de betalactámicos e inhibidores de betalactamasas en Escherichia coli. Influencia del tipo y nivel de producción de betalactamasas.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to characterize resistance of Escherichia coli in our environment to four associations of beta-lactams and beta-lactamase inhibitors (beta Lac) studying the influence of the type and level of beta Lac production. METHODS: The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) to ampicillin/sulbactam (A/S), amoxycillin/clavulanic acid (A/C), ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (T/C) and piperacillin/tazobactam (P/T) assessed was in 245 strains of E. coli resistant to ampicillin, consecutively isolated in our laboratory from September 1995 to March 1996. The beta Lac produced by these isolates were identified by isoelectrofocusing and spectrophotometrically quantified. RESULTS: The sensitivity to A/S, A/C, T/C and P/T was of 9.4, 86.9, 64.5 and 89.4%, respectively. The strains with only one beta Lac which cofocused with TEM-1 were the most frequent (215/245), followed by those producing a cofocusing enzyme with SHV-1 (7/245). A significant correlation was observed between beta Lact activity of the 215 TEM-1 strains and their MIC at A/S (r = 0.53; p < 0.001), A/C (r = 0.46; p < 0.001), T/TC (r = 0.58; p < 0.001), and P/T (r = 0.42; p < 0.001). The comparison between enzyme activity of the isolates of the different categories of susceptibility showed significant differences (p < 0.05) for the four associations studied. CONCLUSION: TEM-1 production is the main cause of resistance to beta-lactams in E. coli in our environment. The inhibitory efficacy of sulbactam, clavulanic acid and tazobactam over TEM-1 is inversely proportional to the amounts of enzyme produced. The high rate of resistance to A/S and T/C E. coli presents in our environment is mainly due to a hyperproduction of TEM-1.

Purification and characterization of two cyclic AMP-independent casein/glycogen synthase kinases from rat liver cytosol.

Two cyclic AMP-independent protein kinases (ATP: protein phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.37) (casein kinase 1 and 2) have been purified from rat liver cytosol by a method involving chromatography on phosphocellulose and casein-Sepharose 4B. Both kinases were essentially free of endogeneous protein substrates and capable of phosphorylating casein, phosvitin and I-form glycogen synthase, but were inactive on histone IIA, protamine and phosphorylase b. They were neither stimulated by cyclic AMP, Ca2+ and calmodulin, nor inhibited by the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor protein. The casein and glycogen synthase kinase activities of each enzyme decreased at the same rate when incubated at 50 degrees C. Casein kinase 1 and casein kinase 2 showed differences in molecular weight, sensitivity to KCl, Km for casein and phosvitin and Ka for Mg2+, whereas their Km values for ATP and I-form glycogen synthase were similar. The phosphorylation of glycogen synthase by these kinases correlated with a decrease in the +/- glucose 6-phosphate activity ratio (independence ratio). However, casein kinase 1 catalyzed the incorporation of about 3.6 mol of 32P/85000 dalton subunit, decreasing the independence ratio from 83 to about 15, whereas the phosphorylation achieved by casein kinase 2 was only about 1.9 mol of 32P/850000 dalton subunit, decreasing the independence ratio to about 23. The independence ratio decrease was prevented by the presence of casein but was unaffected by phosphorylase b. These data indicate that casein/glycogen synthase kinases 1 and 2 are different from cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and phosphorylase kinase.