El rol de las funciones ejecutivas en las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional no adaptativas en niños / O papel das funções executivas nas estratégias cognitivas de regulação emocional não adaptivas em crianças / The role of executive functions in maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies in children

El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la relación de las funciones ejecutivas con las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional no adaptativas (ECRE-NA) en niños, controlando el género y los síntomas de ansiedad y depresión; así como analizar el posible efecto moderador de estos factores en dicha relación. Fueron evaluados 95 niños de 9 a 12 años de edad. Los resultados mostraron que menores niveles de memoria de trabajo y de flexibilidad cognitiva predijeron mayor rumiación; y que una menor capacidad de flexibilidad cognitiva predijo mayor autoculpabilización. El género moderó - marginalmente - las relaciones de la memoria de trabajo y la flexibilidad cognitiva con la rumiación, en el sentido de que un menor desempeño en ambas funciones ejecutivas predijo la rumiación en mayor proporción entre las mujeres que entre los varones. Se espera que estos resultados contribuyan a la mejora del diseño de programas de intervención de promoción de la salud mental infantil.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a relação das funções executivas com as estratégias cognitivas de regulação emocional não adaptivas em crianças, controlando o gênero e os sintomas de ansiedade e depressão; bem como analisar o possível efeito moderador desses fatores. Um total de 95 crianças entre 9 e 12 anos foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que níveis mais baixos de memória de trabalho e flexibilidade cognitiva predisseram maior ruminação; e que uma menor capacidade de flexibilidade cognitiva predisse maior autoculpabilização. O gênero influiu - marginalmente - nas relações de memória de trabalho e flexibilidade cognitiva com a ruminação, no sentido de que um desempenho inferior em ambas as funções executivas predisse ruminação em uma proporção maior entre as meninas que entre os meninos. Espera-se que estes resultados contribuam para a melhoria do desenho de programas de intervenção na promoção da saúde mental infantil.

The aim of this work was to analyze the relationship of executive functions with maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies in children, controlling for gender and for symptoms of anxiety and depression; as well as analyzing the possible moderating effect of these factors. A total of 95 children between 9 and 12 years old were evaluated. The results showed that lower levels of working memory and cognitive flexibility predicted greater rumination; and that a lower capacity for cognitive flexibility predicted greater self-blaming. Gender moderated - marginally - the relationships of working memory and cognitive flexibility with rumination, in the sense that a lower performance in both executive functions predicted rumination in a higher proportion among girls than among boys. It is expected that these results will contribute to the improvement in the design of intervention programs for promotion of mental health in children.

Inhibitory Processes and Fluid Intelligence: a Performance at Early Years of Schooling.

Inhibition constitutes one of the main executive functions and it is important to more complex skills such as fluid intelligence. Actually, there is an agreement on distinguishing three inhibitory types: perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. Several studies show the differential engagement of these inhibitory types in different skills. However, there is no registered evidence about the differential relation of inhibitory types with fluid intelligence. This inquiry is especially important during the first school years, since in this stage, inhibitory processes would already be differentiated, and inhibitory processes and fluid intelligence are linked to the performance of children in the school setting. For these reasons, the goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of perceptual, cognitive, and response inhibition with fluid intelligence, in children in the first years of primary school. For that purpose, a sample of children from six to eight years old (N = 178) was tested with a perceptual inhibition task (perception of similarities and differences task); a cognitive inhibition task (proactive interference task); a response inhibition task (stop signal task); and a fluid intelligence task (progressive matrices task). We observed significant correlations between perceptual and response inhibition and fluid intelligence (controlling for age), but only perceptual inhibition explains significantly part of the performance in the fluid intelligence task. This study provides data about the specific contribution, during childhood, of an inhibitory type to fluid intelligence and contributes empirical evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition.

La inhibición constituye una de las principales funciones ejecutivas, siendo fundamental para otras habilidades más complejas, tales como la inteligencia fluida. Actualmente, existe acuerdo en distinguir tres procesos inhibitorios: inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta. Distintos estudios muestran que los tipos inhibitorios participan de manera diferencial en diversas habilidades, aunque no se registra evidencia sobre la relación diferencial de los mismos con la inteligencia fluida. Su estudio es especialmente importante durante los primeros años de la escuela primaria, donde los procesos inhibitorios estarían diferenciados y tanto ellos como la inteligencia fluida se vinculan con el desempeño de los niños en el ámbito escolar. Por estos motivos, este trabajo se propuso analizar la relación y contribución de la inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida en niños en los primeros años de la escuela primaria. Para ello, una muestra de niños de seis a ocho años de edad (N = 178) fue evaluada con una tarea de inhibición perceptual (test de percepción de diferencias y similitudes), una tarea de inhibición cognitiva (tarea de interferencia proactiva), una tarea de inhibición de la respuesta (basada en el paradigma stop signal ) y una tarea de inteligencia fluida (test de matrices progresivas). Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre la inhibición perceptual y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida (controlando la edad), pero solo la inhibición perceptual explica de manera significativa parte del rendimiento en la tarea de inteligencia fluida. Este estudio aporta datos específicos sobre la contribución de un tipo inhibitorio a la inteligencia fluida durante la niñez, así como evidencia empírica a favor del modelo no-unitario de la inhibición.

Flexibilidad cognitiva y tres procesos inhibitorios durante los primeros años de la escolaridad primaria / Cognitive flexibility and three inhibitory processes during the first years of school period

La inhibición y la flexibilidad cognitiva son funciones ejecutivas principales, mientras la primera aportaría al funcionamiento de la segunda. Actualmente, se identifican distintos procesos inhibitorios -inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta- que presentarían relaciones diferenciales con diversas habilidades. Sin embargo, no se registran estudios sobre tales relaciones con la flexibilidad cognitiva durante los primeros años escolares, donde estas funciones están en desarrollo y contribuyen con el desempeño escolar. Este trabajo se propuso estudiar la relación y contribución de cada proceso inhibitorio a la flexibilidad cognitiva en niños escolares de 6 a 8 años. Los participantes (N=171) efectuaron tareas inhibitorias y de flexibilidad cognitiva. Los resultados muestran una relación baja entre la inhibición perceptual y la flexibilidad cognitiva y ausencia de relaciones con los otros procesos inhibitorios. Ello aporta evidencia al modelo no-unitario de la inhibición y permite discutir sobre la relación de los procesos durante el desarrollo(AU)

Inhibition and cognitive flexibility are basic executive functions, and inhibition would contribute to performance of cognitive flexibility. Actually, different inhibitory processes are identified ­perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. They engagement differentially in diverse skills; however, studies about differential relationships between inhibitory processes and cognitive flexibility during first years of school period are not registered. At this stage, all of these functions are in development and are essential for children's academic performance. The goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of each inhibitory process with the cognitive flexibility, in scholar children from 6 to 8 years-old. The participants (N=171) carried out inhibitory and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results show low relation between perceptual inhibition and cognitive flexibility, and absence of relations with other inhibitory processes. The study contributes evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition, and allows discuss about relationships between these functions during the development(AU)

El conocimiento de las fracciones. Una revisión de su relación con factores cognitivos / Fraction Knowledge. A Review Of Their Relationship With Cognitive Factors

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una revisión de la literatura que permita comprender la relación del conocimiento de las fracciones con los factores cognitivos en estudiantes de escolaridad primaria y secundaria. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, Primary Search, PsycARTICLES y PsycINFO. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: (a) trabajos empíricos, (b) efectuados con niños de escolaridad primaria o secundaria (de 6 a 18 años de edad), (c) publicados en revistas científicas con referato y (d) redactados en español o inglés. Las investigaciones seleccionadas coinciden respecto de que: (a) la atención predice el conocimiento conceptual y procedimental de las fracciones, (b) el lenguaje y la inteligencia fluida explican el conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en la etapa inicial de su enseñanza sistemática y (c) el ejecutivo central contribuye a la predicción del conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en años avanzados de la escolaridad. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas y prácticas de estos resultados y se señalan posibles líneas de investigaciones futuras.

Abstract Learning fractions presents large difficulties for many children and adults. This is a serious problem, because different studies have shown that fraction knowledge predicts advanced mathematics, like algebra. Adult mathematic knowledge is related to employment opportunities, participation in high-skills occupations and economic and social well-being. Therefore, since fractions represent a backbone in mathematics achievement, understanding the factors that explain fractions learning is very important. Some theories of numerical cognition propose that general cognitive factors, like attention or working memory, contribute to learning mathematics. However, recent research has shown different and contradictory results about which cognitive factors are involved in fraction learning. Identifing the cognitive factors that explain fraction knowledge could lead to early identification of children with potential math learning difficulties and the development of interventions to improve their achievement. Therefore, the aim of this article is to perform a systematic literature review to analyze the relationship among some cognitive factors and fraction knowledge. A systematic literature search could define the state of the art on this topic, identify possible sources of controversy among studies, analyze those reasons to recognize points of agreement and discrepancy among studies and direct all this information towards future research lines. A systematic search of empirical articles was done on Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE Primary Search, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO databases. Search was carried out on September of 2017, with keywords in Spanish and their translation into English. Search terms were "fractions" ("fracciones") and "cognitive ability" ("habilidad cognitiva"), "cognitive processes" ("procesos cognitivos"), "working memory" ("memoria de trabajo"), "attention" ("atención"), "intelligence" ("inteligencia"), "speed of processing" ("velocidad de procesamiento"), "inhibition" ("inhibición") and "language" ("lenguaje"). Articles inclusion criteria were: (a) empirical studies, (b) with scholar age samples (6-18 years old), (c) published on peer review journals, (d) written in spanish or english. Thirteen publications were selected. They agree about attention predicting conceptual and procedural knowledge of fractions between fourth and sixth grade, (b) language and fluid intelligence explains conceptual knowledge of fractions in the initial stage of its systematic teaching, (c) central executive predicts fractions concepts in advanced levels of fraction instruction but not in the initial stages of learning, (d) central executive and fluid reasoning does not predict procedural fraction knowledge when other cognitive factors and mathematical abilities, like attention or whole number calculation skills, are included in the explanation models. In broad terms, these results are in line with some theoretical models of numerical cognition and suggested that cognitive processes and abilities are important to learn fractions. There are some practical implications to these results. Fraction learning could be improved by using pedagogical strategies and didactic materials which maximize cognitive performance. For example, employing novelty and ludic materials for teaching fractions could enable students to focus, maintain attention and improve their learning. Also, short instructions with low linguistic complexity would help students with attention, working memory or language difficulties to afford fractions activities and achieve a meaningful learning. On the other hand, working memory load to perform complex fraction activities would be reduced if basic fraction concept and procedures are consolidated in long term memory. Therefore, before advancing to more complex fractions activities in higher grades, the teacher should verify that the basic notions of fractions have been learnt and memorized by students. To develop theoretical cognitive models of mathematics learning, future research might analyze if cognitive factors contribute to fractions knowledge mainly through direct or indirect effects (that is, via their effects on others areas of math knowledge which affect fraction learning). On the other hand, the tasks used to measure cognitive factors are not always pure, that is, different cognitive operations are involved in their execution. Future studies might work with latent variables that allow the identification of the share variance between cognitive task, and consequently, the main cognitive factors involved in fractions learning.

Regulación emocional y desempeño académico: revisión sistemática de sus relaciones empíricas / Regulação emocional e desempenho acadêmico: uma revisão sistemática de relações empíricas / Emotion regulation and academic performance: a systematic review of empirical relationships

Se ha propuesto que laregulación de la emoción (RE) constituye un factor con capacidad predictiva sobre el desempeño académico. Sin embargo, los estudios empíricos son escasos y aún se conoce relativamente poco sobre la relación específica de las estrategias y habilidades de RE con diferentes indicadores del desempeño académico. El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar el estado del arte de la relación de la regulación emocional (RE) con el desempeño académico. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de artículos en las bases Google Scholar, ERIC y PsyArticles combinando los términos regulación de la emoción y autorregulación de la emoción con: habilidades, competencia, logro, éxito, desempeño, aprendizaje (académico), escolar/escuela, alfabetización, aula/aúlico, educación, lectura, matemáticas. Se seleccionaron 17 artículos. El análisis permitió conformar dos grupos. En el primer grupo, fueron consideraron los artículos que evaluaron estrategias de RE. Entre estos estudios predominaron los diseños experimentales y los indicadores comportamentales como medidas de RE. En el segundo grupo, fueron considerados los estudios que evaluaron habilidades de RE. En este grupo, predominaron los estudios con diseños transversales y medidas de autoinforme o de informes de terceros para evaluarRE. Se concluye señalando recomendaciones para futuros trabajos.

Foi proposto que a regulação da emoção (ER) é um fator com uma capacidade preditiva de desempenho acadêmico. No entanto, estudos empíricos são escassos e ainda relativamente pouco se sabe sobre a relação específica das estratégias e habilidades RE com diferentes indicadores de desempenho acadêmico. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar o estado da arte sobre a relação entre regulação emocional e desempenho acadêmico. Uma pesquisa sistemática de artigos empíricos foi realizada nas bases de dados Google Scholar, ERIC e PsycArticles combinando os termos regulação de emoção ou auto-regulação emocional com: (acadêmico) habilidades, competência, realização, sucesso, desempenho, aprendizagem, escola, alfabetização, sala de aula, educação, leitura, matemática. Foram selecionados 17itens. Análise possível formar dois grupos. No primeiro grupo, foram considerados os artigos que avaliaram estratégias de RE. Nestes estudos predominaram projetos experimentais e indicadores comportamentais como medidas de RE. No segundo grupo, foram considerados estudos que avaliam habilidades RE. Neste grupo predominaram estudos com projetos transversais e medidas de auto-relato ou de relatórios de terceiros para avaliar RE. Concluiu-se apontando algumas recomendações para trabalhos futuros.

It has been proposed that emotion regulation (ER) is a factor with a predictive capacity for academic performance. However, empirical studies are scarce and relatively little is still known about the specific relationship of RE strategies and abilities with different indicators of academic performance. The aim of this study was to identify the state of the art regarding the relationship of emotional regulation with academic performance. A systematic search of empirical articles was conducted in the databases Google Scholar, ERIC and PsyArticles combining the terms emotion regulation or emotion self-regulation with: (academic) abilities, competency, achievement, success, performance, learning, school, literacy, classroom, education, reading, math. There were selected 17 items. The analysis allowed two groups to be formed. In the first group, articles evaluating ER strategies were considered. Among these studies, experimental designs and behavioral indicators predominated as ER measures. In the second group, studies evaluating ER skills were considered. In this group, studies with cross-sectional designs and measures of self-report or other reports to evaluate ER were predominant. It concludes with recommendations for future work

Perspectivas Teóricas y Evidencia Empírica sobre la Inhibición / Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence on Inhibition / Perspectivas Teóricas e Evidência Empírica sobre a Inibição

La evidencia empírica muestra que la inhibición es un proceso fuertemente implicado en el dominio y la adquisición de competencias sociales, emocionales y comportamentales. Sin embargo, a pesar del acuerdo respecto a su importancia en distintos ámbitos, aún existen divergencias en cuanto a su definición conceptual y operativa. Principalmente, existe un profundo debate en torno a si la inhibición es un constructo unitario o debería fragmentarse en un conjunto de procesos. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir los hallazgos y las posturas más significativas en relación con el estudio de dicho constructo, para lo cual, en primer lugar se hace una propuesta explicativa del control de la interferencia, basada en un enfoque no inhibitorio; en segundo lugar, se describen los modelos más representativos, de 1, 2 y 3 factores para, finalmente, enumerar algunos de los aportes y hallazgos planteados como principal fuente de evidencia a favor del enfoque fragmentado.

Empirical evidence shows that inhibition is a process strongly implicated in the dominion and acquisition of social, emotional and behavioral skills. However, despite the agreement on its importance in various areas, there is still divergence in terms of its conceptual and operational definition. Mainly, a deep debate exists whether inhibition is a unitary construct or must be fragmented into a set of processes. The objective of this study is to describe the findings and the most significant positions in relation to the study of this construct by first, making an explanatory proposal for interference control, based on a non-inhibitory approach; and secondly, describing the most representative 1, 2 and 3 factor models, to finally list some of the contributions and findings proposed as the main source of evidence for the fragmented approach.

A evidência empírica mostra que a inibição é um processo fortemente vinculado ao domínio e à aquisição de competências sociais, emocionais e comportamentais. Contudo, apesar da concordância a respeito de sua importância em diferentes âmbitos, ainda existem divergências quanto a sua definição conceitual e operativa. Principalmente, existe um profundo debate sobre se a inibição é um construto unitário ou deveria fragmentar-se num conjunto de processos. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever os achados e os posicionamentos mais significativos no que se refere ao estudo desse construto; para isso, em primeiro lugar, faz-se uma proposta explicativa do controle da interferência, baseada num enfoque inibitório; em segundo lugar, descrevem-se os modelos mais representativos, de 1, 2 e 3 fatores para, finalmente, enumerar algumas das contribuições e constatações apresentadas como principal fonte de evidência a favor do enfoque fragmentado.

Executive functions and Cognitive Reappraisal ability: the relationship in children / Funciones ejecutivas y regulación de la emoción: evidencia de su relación en niños

Resumen La habilidad de reevaluación cognitiva (HRC) es una estrategia de regulación emocional que implica resignificar un evento para cambiar su efecto emocional. En los niños, esta habilidad permite disminuir experiencias emocionales negativas y se ha mostrado como un factor de protección frente a la ansiedad y depresión. Sin embargo, aún resta conocer los factores que contribuyen a explicar las diferencias individuales en esta habilidad. Uno de estos factores son las funciones ejecutivas, ya que contribuyen al control cognitivo de la emoción. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar el rol de las funciones ejecutivas en la HRC. Se evaluaron 100 niños de 9 a 12 años (M = 10.49; DS = 1.10) en memoria de trabajo, flexibilidad cognitiva espontánea, inhibición y HRC mediante la tarea de amplitud oral (Batería AWMA), prueba de fluidez verbal semántica (Batería ENI) y la tarea de identificación de reevaluaciones cognitivas (TIRC) elaborada para este estudio. Los datos se analizaron mediante regresión lineal múltiple. Los resultados mostraron que las funciones ejecutivas predecían la HRC, es decir, los niños que tuvieron mejor desempeño en funcionamiento ejecutivo mostraron mayor HRC. Se espera que estos resultados permitan profundizar el conocimiento de los procesos implicados en el control cognitivo de la emoción.

Abstract The Cognitive Reappraisal Ability (CRA) is an emotional regulation strategy that involves giving a new meaning to an event in order to change the emotional response. In children, this skill helps reduce negative emotional experiences and has proven to be a protective factor against anxiety and depression. However, there's still the need to understand the factors that may influence on the individual differences in the CRA. One of these factors is executive functions, since they contribute to the cognitive control of emotion. The aim of this study was to analyze the role of executive functions in the CRA. We evaluated 100 children whose ages ranged from 9 to 12 years (M=10,49; DS=1,10) on their working memory capacity, spontaneous cognitive flexibility, inhibition and CRA using a Verbal Span Task (AWMA) , Verbal Fluency Task (ENI Battery) and a Cognitive Reappraisal Task CRT, which was designed for this research. Data set was analyzed by linear regression analysis. The results showed executive functions preceded CRA, i.e. children who performed better in executive functioning showed higher CRA. It is expected that these results permit a deeper understanding of the processes involved in cognitive control of emotion.

Predictores cognitivos de la capacidad de planificación en niños de 6 y 7 años de edad / Cognitive predictors of planning ability in 6 and 7 years old children / Preditores cognitivos da capacidade de planejamento em crianças de 6 e 7 anos de idade

La planificación implica la habilidad para identificar y organizar secuencias de acciones con el fin de alcanzar metas específicas. En la literatura se observan resultados dispares respecto de cuáles son los mejores predictores de esta capacidad en niños. Nuestro objetivo en este trabajo fue identificar en qué medida la voluntad de control, el control inhibitorio perceptual, la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida explican tal capacidad en niños que inician la educación primaria básica. La muestra estuvo conformada por 289 participantes de entre 6 y 7 años de edad. Los resultados indicaron que únicamente la inteligencia fluida y la memoria de trabajo se asociaban y explicaban la capacidad de planificar. Discutimos las implicaciones de estos resultados para el diseño de futuras investigaciones.

Planning involves the ability to identify and organize sequences of actions to achieve specific goals. In scientific literature different results are observed about which are the best predictors of this capacity in children. The aim of this study is to identify to what extent effortful control, perceptual inhibitory control, working memory and fluid intelligence explain this ability in children who start basic primary education. The sample consisted of 289 participants aged between 6 and 7 years old. The results indicated that only fluid intelligence and working memory were associated with and explained planning ability. The implications of these results for the design of future research are discussed.

O planejamento envolve a habilidade de identificar e organizar sequências de ações para alcançar objetivos específicos. Na literatura, são observados resultados diferentes em relação a quais são os melhores preditores dessa capacidade em crianças. O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar em que medida o desejo de controle, o controle inibitório perceptual, a memória de trabalho e a inteligência fluida explicam essa capacidade em crianças que começam a Educação Básica Primária. A amostra foi composta de 289 participantes com idade entre 6 e 7 anos de idade. Os resultados indicaram que apenas a inteligência fluida e a memória de trabalho se associavam e explicavam a capacidade de planejar. Assim, é proposta a discussão das implicações desses resultados para o projeto de pesquisas futuras.

Memoria de Trabajo e Inteligencia Fluida. Una Revisión de sus Relaciones / Working Memory and Fluid Intelligence. A Review of its Relations

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo es contribuir a la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida. Para esto se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos PubMed y Google Académico utilizando una combinación de los términos en español y en inglés memoria de trabajo (working memory) e inteligencia fluida (fluid intelligence). La revisión de la literatura indica que el control atencional y la capacidad de recuperar información de la memoria a largo plazo, serían los procesos a través de los cuales la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida se relacionan. Sin embargo, existen resultados contradictorios respecto del rol que la retención de la información y que la capacidad de procesamiento de la información presentan en esta relación. Se concluye señalando algunos aspectos metodológicos que mejorarían la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida.

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence. A search was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar database using a combination of the Spanish and English terms working memory (memoria de trabajo) and fluid intelligence (inteligencia fluida). The review indicates that attention control and the ability to retrieve information from long-term memory would be the processes through which working memory and fluid intelligence are related. However, there are conflicting results regarding the role of retention of information and information processing capacity in this relationship. We concluded by pointing out some methodological aspects that would enhance the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence.

As relações entre temperamento e as funções executivas em crianças de 6 e 7 anos de idade / Relationships between temperament and executive functions in 6 and 7 years old children / Relaciones entre el temperamento y las funciones ejecutivas en niños de 6 y 7 años de edad

As funções executivas são um conjunto de processos cognitivos envolvidos no controle do pensamento, comportamento e afeto. Estudos em crianças pré-escolares indicam que esses processos estão associados às características temperamentais delas, no entanto, em crianças mais velhas, as relações entre essas construções têm sido pouco exploradas. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a relação entre temperamento e as funções executivas de controle inibitório, memória de trabalho, planejamento e tomada de decisão em crianças do primeiro ano do Ensino Básico. Um grupo de 289 crianças com idade média de 80,94 meses, com desvio padrão de 3,75 meses, foi avaliada. Os resultados indicaram que aquelas crianças com maior capacidade de autorregular a sua reatividade temperamental apresentam melhor desempenho no planejamento, em comparação a crianças com maiores dificuldades para se autorregular. No entanto, não foram observadas relações entre temperamento e memória de trabalho, inibição perceptual e tomada de decisão. Conclui-se apontando alguns critérios metodológicos para a elaboração de futuras pesquisas que explorem a relação entre as funções executivas e o temperamento.

Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes involved in the control of thought, behavior and affect. Studies in preschool children indicate that these processes are associated with their temperamental characteristics; however, in older children the relationships between these constructs have been little explored. The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between temperament and executive functions of inhibitory control, working memory, planning and decision making in children in the first year of the Basic Primary Education. A group of 289 children whose average age was 80.94 months with a standard deviation of 3.75 months was evaluated. The results indicated that children with greater capacity to regulate their temperamental reactivity present better performance in planning compared to children with higher difficulty to regulate temperamental reactivity. However, no relationships were observed between temperament and working memory, perceptual inhibition and decision making. We conclude by pointing out some methodological criteria for future research design that explores the relationship between temperament and executive functions.

Las funciones ejecutivas conforman un conjunto de procesos cognitivos implicados en el control del pensamiento, comportamiento y afectividad. Estudios en niños de preescolar indican que dichos procesos se asocian con las características temperamentales de éstos, sin embargo, en niños de mayor edad las relaciones entre estos constructos han sido poco exploradas. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar las relaciones entre el temperamento y las funciones ejecutivas de control inhibitorio, memoria de trabajo, planificación y toma de decisiones, en niños de primer año de la Educación Primaria Básica. Se evaluó un grupo de 289 niños cuya edad media fue de 80.94 meses, con una desviación estándar de 3.75 meses. Los resultados indicaron que aquellos niños con mayor capacidad de autorregular la reactividad temperamental presentan mejor desempeño en planificación, respecto de los niños con mayores dificultades para autorregular la misma. No obstante, no se observaron relaciones del temperamento con la memoria de trabajo, la inhibición perceptual y la toma de decisiones. Se concluye señalando algunos criterios metodológicos para el diseño de futuras investigaciones que exploren las relaciones entre el temperamento y las funciones ejecutivas.

Cognitive models of executive functions development. Methodological limitations and theoretical challenges / Modelos cognitivos del desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas. Limitaciones metodológicas y desafíos teóricos

Executive functions (EF) have been defined as a series of higher-order cognitive processes which allow the control of thought, behavior and affection according to the achievement of a goal. Such processes present a lengthy postnatal development which matures completely by the end of adolescence. In this article we make a review of some of the main models of EF development during childhood. The aim of this work is to describe the state of the art related to the topic, identifying the main theoretical difficulties and methodological limitations associated with the different proposed paradigms. Finally, some suggestions are given to cope with such difficulties, emphasizing that the development of an ontology of EF could be a viable alternative to counter them. We believe that future researches should guide their efforts toward the development of that ontology

Las funciones ejecutivas (EF) han sido definidas como una serie de procesos cognitivos de orden superior, que permiten el control del pensamiento, comportamiento y afectividad conforme al logro de una meta. Tales procesos presentan un desarrollo posnatal prolongado, culminando su maduración sobre el final de la adolescencia. En el presente artículo se realiza una revisión de algunos de los principales modelos del desarrollo de las EF en la infancia. El objetivo central de este trabajo es describir el estado del arte respecto de dicho tópico, identificando las principales dificultades teóricas y limitaciones metodológicas asociadas a los diferentes paradigmas propuestos. Finalmente, se señalan algunas de las soluciones sugeridas para afrontar tales dificultades, destacando que el desarrollo de una ontología de las EF podría resultar una alternativa viable para contrarrestar las mismas. Consideramos que futuras investigaciones deberían encaminar sus esfuerzos en esta dirección

Desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en niños preescolares: una revisión de algunos de sus factores moduladores / Development of executive function in preschool children: a review of some modulators factors

Durante el transcurso de las últimas dos décadas, se ha generado un creciente interés científico en el estudio del desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas (EF) durante el periodo preescolar. Dicho interés, ha nacido en parte del notorio desarrollo que tales procesos experimentan durante este periodo. Asimismo, numerosas investigaciones han hallado un vínculo entre el rendimiento en tales procesos, y la presencia de diferentes trastornos psicopatológicos. El presente artículo, constituye una revisión del desarrollo de las EF durante el periodo preescolar. El objetivo que se persigue en el mismo, es describir los cambios observados a nivel cognitivo-comportamental en el FE durante este periodo; vinculándolos a sus posibles bases anatómico-funcionales. Asimismo, se procurará analizar el impacto de algunos factores considerados moduladores de este proceso sobre el mismo. Se concluirá destacando la necesidad de profundizar en el estudio de los factores moduladores de tal desarrollo, dada la importancia que las EF presentarían para la adaptación del individuo al ambiente.

During the course of the last two decades, there has been a growing scientific intresting in the study of exective functions development during preschool years. This interesting arise in part in these processes experience considerable development during this period. Also, numerous studies have found a link between performance in these processes and the presence of different psychopathological disorders. This article is a review of EF development during preschool years. The objective pursued in it, is to describe the observed changes in EF in cognitive-behavioral level during this period, linking them to those potential anatomical -functional bases. Although, we will analyze the impact of some factors considered modulators of this process. We concluded emphasizing the need for further study of the factors modulating such development, given the importance of EF for individual's adaptation to the environment.

Bases neurales del desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas durante la infancia y adolescencia: una revisión / Neural basis of executive function development during childhood and adolescence: a review

Las funciones ejecutivas constituyen un controvertido constructo, bajo el cual se han agrupado diferentes procesos cognitivos asociadas al control consciente del pensamiento, comportamiento y afectividad. Gran parte de los mismos, comienzan su desarrollo en la infancia, culminando dicho proceso a fines de la adolescencia. A nivel anatómico, el funcionamiento ejecutivo (FE) ha sido vinculado a la actividad de la corteza prefrontal y la corteza cingulada, entre otras regiones cerebrales. El objetivo del presente artículo, es realizar una revisión de los cambios en la actividad cortical que han sido asociados a las mejoras en el FE durante la infancia y adolescencia. Para tal fin, se realizará una recopilación de diversos estudios con fMRI comparativos de la performance y actividad neuronal de infantes, adolescentes y adultos; durante la ejecución de tareas de FE. Se concluirá resaltando la necesidad de ampliar el número de estudios comparativos con tales características. Dichas investigaciones, podrían facilitar el diseño de estrategias preventivas y terapéuticas más específicas para el abordaje de las diferentes patologías asociadas al FE.

Executive functions is a controversial construct, under which are grouped different cognitive processes associated with conscious control of thought, behavior and emotion. Much of them, begin their development in childhood, finishing it in late adolescence. In the anatomical level, executive function (EF) has been linked to the activity of the prefrontal cortex and the cingulate cortex, among other brain regions. The purpose of this article is to review the changes in cortical activity that has been associated with improvements in EF during childhood and adolescence. To this goal, there will be a compilation of several fMRI studies that compare the performance and neuronal activity between infants, adolescents and adults during the performance of EF tasks. It will conclude by stressing the need to expand the number of comparative studies with such characteristics. Such research may facilitate the design of preventive and therapeutic strategies for addressing numerous pathologies associated with the FE.