The role of legal status and uncertainty in the reproductive aspirations of 1.5 and second generation Mexican-origin immigrant young women: An exploratory study.

Background: The 1.5 generation, brought to the U.S. prior to age 16, faces barriers that the second generation, U.S.-born to immigrant parents, does not, including only temporary legal protection through the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) Program. Little is known about how legal status and uncertainty shape cisgender immigrant young women's reproductive aspirations. Methods: Drawing on the Theory of Conjunctural Action with attention to the immigrant optimism and bargain hypotheses, we conducted an exploratory qualitative study using semi-structured interviews with seven 1.5 generation DACA recipients and eleven second generation Mexican-origin women, 21-33 years old in 2018. Interviews focused on reproductive and life aspirations, migration experiences, and childhood and current economic disadvantage. We conducted a thematic analysis using a deductive and inductive approach. Results: Data resulted in a conceptual model on the pathways through which uncertainty and legal status shape reproductive aspirations. Participants aspired to complete higher education and have a fulfilling career, financial stability, a stable partnership, and parents' support prior to considering childbearing. For the 1.5 generation, uncertainty of their legal status makes the thought of parenting feel scary, while for the second generation, the legal status of their parents makes parenting feel scary. Achieving desired stability before childbearing is more challenging and uncertain for the 1.5 generation. Conclusions: Temporary legal status constrains young women's reproductive aspirations by limiting their ability to achieve desired forms of stability prior to parenting and making the thought of parenting frightening. More research is needed to further develop this novel conceptual model.

Sibling relationships among U.S. citizen children of undocumented Mexican parents.

Current U.S. immigration policies disproportionately impact Mexican-origin mixed-status families, yet few studies examine the consequences of immigration enforcement (e.g., immigration-related arrest and detention) and deportation on sibling dynamics. Given this gap, this study focuses on the experiences and changes within sibling relationships in the aftermath of parental detention and deportation. We analyzed a subsample of 20 citizen children interviews (7 sibling dyads; 2 sibling triads) from a multi-site binational study that examined the psychosocial functioning of U.S. citizen children with undocumented Mexican parents. Using inductive thematic analysis, we explored the roles and functional importance of sibling relationships before and after experiences of parents' detention and deportation. Our findings suggest that prior to detention or deportation experiences, sibling relationships were described as "normal." After these experiences, however, sibling relationships changed and developed protective adaptations, including more open communication about their experiences and the assumption of caregiving roles. In cases where deportation did not occur, there still existed the threat of future immigration-related action, which contributed to fear and an inability to share feelings and experiences among siblings. Our findings suggest that sibling relationships might serve as an important locus of stability and protection. Yet, adaptive communication may not emerge as long as the threat of apprehension, detention, and deportation exists.

Las políticas migratorias actuales de los Estados Unidos afectan de manera desproporcionada a las familias de condición migratoria mixta de origen mexicano, sin embargo, pocos estudios analizan las consecuencias de la aplicación de las leyes de inmigración (por ej.: el arresto y la detención relacionados con la inmigración) y la deportación en la dinámica fraternal. Teniendo en cuenta esta falta de datos, el presente estudio se centra en las experiencias y los cambios dentro de las relaciones fraternales después de la detención y la deportación de los padres. Analizamos una submuestra de 20 entrevistas a niños ciudadanos (7 díadas de hermanos; 2 tríadas de hermanos) de un estudio binacional realizado en varios sitios que analizó el funcionamiento psicosocial de niños ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos con padres mexicanos indocumentados. Utilizando el análisis temático inductivo, analizamos los roles y la importancia funcional de las relaciones fraternales antes y después de las experiencias de detención y deportación de los padres. Nuestros resultados indican que, antes de las experiencias de detención o deportación, las relaciones fraternales se describieron como "normales". Sin embargo, después de estas experiencias, las relaciones fraternales cambiaron y surgieron adaptaciones protectoras, por ejemplo, una comunicación más abierta acerca de sus experiencias y la asunción de roles de cuidado. En los casos donde no hubo deportación, igualmente existió la amenaza de una futura acción relacionada con la inmigración, la cual generó miedo e incapacidad de compartir sentimientos y experiencias entre hermanos. Nuestros resultados sugieren que las relaciones fraternales podrían servir como lugar importante de estabilidad y protección. Sin embargo, es posible que la comunicación adaptativa no surja mientras exista la amenaza de arresto, detención y deportación.

DACA's Association With Birth Outcomes Among Mexican-Origin Mothers in the United States.

The 2012 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program granted work authorization and protection from deportation to more than 800,000 young undocumented immigrants who arrived to the United States as minors. We estimate the association between this expansion of legal rights and birth outcomes among 72,613 singleton births to high school-educated Mexican immigrant women in the United States from June 2010 to May 2014, using birth records data from the National Center for Health Statistics. Exploiting the arbitrariness of the upper age cutoff for DACA eligibility and using a difference-in-differences design, we find that DACA was associated with improvements in the rates of low birth weight and very low birth weight, birth weight in grams, and gestational age among Mexican immigrant mothers.

Neighborhood Social Cohesion and Serious Psychological Distress Among Brazilian Immigrants in Boston.

Recent migrants to the United States face various stressors, including adjustment to new community norms and practices. To ease this transition, migrant groups have traditionally formed enclaves where they might live in close proximity and access institutions designed to serve their cultural interests. For newer migrant groups, such as Brazilians residing in New England, neighborhood social cohesion may therefore be particularly important for buffering against serious psychological distress. We use representative data from the 2007 Boston Metropolitan Immigrant Health and Legal Status Survey to estimate the association of serious psychological distress with neighborhood-level social cohesion among foreign-born Brazilian adults. We find that serious psychological distress is inversely related to neighborhood social cohesion (OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.46, 0.94). Annual earnings were also negatively associated with distress (OR 0.97, 95% CI 0.93, 0.99). Our findings suggest that neighborhood social ties may buffer against serious psychological distress for Brazilian migrants in New England.

Continuities and Changes in the Processes of Mexican Migration and Return.

This article examines continuities and changes in the prevalence and determinants of first migration and return between Mexico and the United States. Results show a dramatic decline over time in the likelihood of migrants' making a first trip. The empirical design distinguishes processes affecting migrating cohorts from those emanating from period conditions, paying particular attention to changes in educational selectivity and the legal status of the flows. The definition of cohort and period corresponds roughly to changes in U.S. migration policy and the American economy. We find that the likelihood of return migration also declined in conjunction with period conditions that are related to border enforcement. The drop in the likelihood of return was particularly sharp for undocumented migrants, and over time return flows increasingly consist of documented migrants. The implications of these findings for immigration policy in the United States and for the incorporation of returnees in Mexico are discussed.

Immigrant Legal Status and Health: Legal Status Disparities in Chronic Conditions and Musculoskeletal Pain Among Mexican-Born Farm Workers in the United States.

Immigrant legal status determines access to the rights and privileges of U.S. society. Legal status may be conceived of as a fundamental cause of health, producing a health disparity whereby unauthorized immigrants are disadvantaged relative to authorized immigrants, a perspective that is supported by research on legal status disparities in self-rated health and mental health. We conducted a systematic review of the literature on legal status disparities in physical health and examined whether a legal status disparity exists in chronic conditions and musculoskeletal pain among 17,462 Mexican-born immigrants employed as farm workers in the United States and surveyed in the National Agricultural Workers Survey between 2000 and 2015. We found that unauthorized, Mexican-born farm workers have a lower incidence of chronic conditions and lower prevalence of pain compared with authorized farm workers. Furthermore, we found a legal status gradient in health whereby naturalized U.S. citizens report the worst health, followed by legal permanent residents and unauthorized immigrants. Although inconsistent with fundamental cause theory, our results were robust to alternative specifications and consistent with a small body of existing research on legal status disparities in physical health. Although it is well known that Mexican immigrants have better-than-expected health outcomes given their social disadvantage, we suggest that an epidemiologic paradox may also apply to within-immigrant disparities by legal status. We offer several explanations for the counterintuitive result.

Fuentes de información de patentes y procedimiento para las búsquedas de libertad de acción en Cuba / Patent information sources and procedure for freedom-to-operate searches in Cuba

Objetivo: proponer un procedimiento metodológico para la realización de búsquedas de libertad de acción utilizando información técnica legal de documentos de patentes. Métodos: primeramente se caracterizaron numerosas bases de datos de patentes de acceso gratuito disponibles en internet (Patentescope®, Latipat, Espacenet, Invenes, Depatisnet, Lens.org y Patentinspiration) con respecto a la cobertura temporal y a la cantidad de patentes cubanas, y se identificaron y estudiaron dos fuentes de información que recogen estados legales de estas (INPADOC y WIPO Register Portal). Resultados: Patentscope® e Invenes se consideraron como las mejores bases, ya que permiten la búsqueda en el documento completo (título, resumen, descripción y reivindicaciones) mediante palabras clave; y Depatisnet se considera útil cuando se consulta mediante el Código Internacional de Patentes reclasificado por la Oficina de Patentes Alemana. No obstante, se recomienda el uso de todas las bases estudiadas para evadir errores relacionados con los contenidos y otras limitaciones relacionadas con las facilidades de búsqueda. A partir de las prestaciones detectadas en las fuentes de información analizadas, se implementó y perfeccionó un proceso de búsqueda sobre un medicamento preventivo contra el VIH/SIDA que demostró que existía libertad de acción en Cuba para su explotación, así como también la pertinencia de las herramientas y la metodología utilizadas para realizar este tipo de búsquedas. Conclusiones: este estudio de caso permite poner en práctica un procedimiento para realizar búsquedas y evidencia la importancia de la implementación del servicio de búsqueda libertad de acción para facilitar el acceso a invenciones patentadas, especialmente en el campo médico-farmacéutico(AU)

Objective: a methodological procedure is proposed to conduct freedom-to-operate searches using patent documentation-related legal technical information. Methods: first, characterization was performed of a large number of open-access patent databases available on the Internet (Patentescope®, Latipat, Espacenet, Invenes, Depatisnet, Lens.org and Patentinspiration) with respect to time coverage and number of Cuban patents, followed by identification and analysis of two information sources referring to their legal status (INPADOC y WIPO Register Portal). Results: Patentscope® and Invenes were considered to be the best databases, since they allow to search the entire document (title, abstract, description and claims) by means of key words. Depatisnet was found to be useful for inquiries about the International Patent Classification as re-classified by the German Patent Office. However, it is recommended to use all the databases studied to avoid content-related errors and other limitations to do with search functions. Based on the possibilities offered by the information sources analyzed, a search procedure for an HIV/AIDS preventive drug was implemented and perfected, showing that there was freedom-to-operate in Cuba for its exploitation, as well as the relevance of the tools and the methodology used to perform this type of search. Conclusions: in this case study a procedure is made operational and evidence is provided of the importance of implementing the freedom-to-operate search service to facilitate access to patented inventions, especially in the medical-pharmaceutical field(AU)

Fuentes de información de patentes y procedimiento para las búsquedas de libertad de acción en Cuba / Patent information sources and procedure for freedom-to-operate searches in Cuba

Objetivo: proponer un procedimiento metodológico para la realización de búsquedas de libertad de acción utilizando información técnica legal de documentos de patentes. Métodos: primeramente se caracterizaron numerosas bases de datos de patentes de acceso gratuito disponibles en internet (Patentescope®, Latipat, Espacenet, Invenes, Depatisnet, Lens.org y Patentinspiration) con respecto a la cobertura temporal y a la cantidad de patentes cubanas, y se identificaron y estudiaron dos fuentes de información que recogen estados legales de estas (INPADOC y WIPO Register Portal). Resultados: Patentscope® e Invenes se consideraron como las mejores bases, ya que permiten la búsqueda en el documento completo (título, resumen, descripción y reivindicaciones) mediante palabras clave; y Depatisnet se considera útil cuando se consulta mediante el Código Internacional de Patentes reclasificado por la Oficina de Patentes Alemana. No obstante, se recomienda el uso de todas las bases estudiadas para evadir errores relacionados con los contenidos y otras limitaciones relacionadas con las facilidades de búsqueda. A partir de las prestaciones detectadas en las fuentes de información analizadas, se implementó y perfeccionó un proceso de búsqueda sobre un medicamento preventivo contra el VIH/SIDA que demostró que existía libertad de acción en Cuba para su explotación, así como también la pertinencia de las herramientas y la metodología utilizadas para realizar este tipo de búsquedas. Conclusiones: este estudio de caso permite poner en práctica un procedimiento para realizar búsquedas y evidencia la importancia de la implementación del servicio de búsqueda libertad de acción para facilitar el acceso a invenciones patentadas, especialmente en el campo médico-farmacéutico(AU)

Objective: a methodological procedure is proposed to conduct freedom-to-operate searches using patent documentation-related legal technical information. Methods: first, characterization was performed of a large number of open-access patent databases available on the Internet (Patentescope®, Latipat, Espacenet, Invenes, Depatisnet, Lens.org and Patentinspiration) with respect to time coverage and number of Cuban patents, followed by identification and analysis of two information sources referring to their legal status (INPADOC y WIPO Register Portal). Results: Patentscope® and Invenes were considered to be the best databases, since they allow to search the entire document (title, abstract, description and claims) by means of key words. Depatisnet was found to be useful for inquiries about the International Patent Classification as re-classified by the German Patent Office. However, it is recommended to use all the databases studied to avoid content-related errors and other limitations to do with search functions. Based on the possibilities offered by the information sources analyzed, a search procedure for an HIV/AIDS preventive drug was implemented and perfected, showing that there was freedom-to-operate in Cuba for its exploitation, as well as the relevance of the tools and the methodology used to perform this type of search. Conclusions: in this case study a procedure is made operational and evidence is provided of the importance of implementing the freedom-to-operate search service to facilitate access to patented inventions, especially in the medical-pharmaceutical field(AU)

Health-related quality of life among Mexican-origin Latinos: the role of immigration legal status.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between immigration legal status and related vulnerabilities and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among Mexican-origin Latinos living in a U.S.-Mexico border region. METHODS: Data were obtained using multistage sampling from 393 Latino adults who took part in the 2009 San Diego Prevention Research Center community survey. RESULTS: Significant differences in HRQoL were found across immigration legal status subgroups. Vulnerabilities associated with HRQoL varied across immigration legal status subgroups, and only depression was associated with HRQoL regardless of immigration legal status. CONCLUSION: Results from this study emphasize the need for policies and programs to facilitate access to preventive services, including mental health services, in order to maintain the health of at-risk Latino immigrants.

Family legal status and health: Measurement dilemmas in studies of Mexican-origin children.

Family legal status is a potentially important source of variation in the health of Mexican-origin children. However, a comprehensive understanding of its role has been elusive due to data limitations and inconsistent measurement procedures. Using restricted data from the 2011-2012 California Health Interview Survey, we investigate the implications of measurement strategies for estimating the share of children in undocumented families and inferences about how legal status affects children's health. The results show that inferences are sensitive to how this "fundamental cause" is operationalized under various combinatorial approaches used in previous studies. We recommend alternative procedures with greater capacity to reveal how the statuses of both parents affect children's well-being. The results suggest that the legal statuses of both parents matter, but the status of mothers is especially important for assessments of child health. The investigation concludes with a discussion of possible explanations for these findings.

O código civil brasileiro na disciplinada pesquisa com seres humanos / Brazilian Civil Code in the area of research on human subjects

Este artigo tem por objetivo relacionar as normas éticas sobre pesquisas com seres humanos com o Código Civil brasileiro, lei que trata de diversos aspectos relacionados à proteção da pessoa humana. Em geral, os pesquisadores da área médica desconhecem a legislação civil, não se dando conta das consequências jurídicas dos erros causados pelas pesquisas realizadas. Apresenta-se, no início, um resumo da disciplina ética sobre pesquisas com seres humanos, com o Código de Nuremberg e a Declaração de Helsinque, além da disciplina infralegal no Brasil, realizada pelo Conselho Nacional de Saúde. Em seguida, com o intuito de demonstrar a inexistência de um vazio legislativo nessa matéria, analisaram-se os aspectos do Código Civil relativos às pesquisas com seres humanos, como a personalidade jurídica, a capacidade de agir, os direitos da personalidade e a responsabilidade civil.

This study seeks to relate the ethical norms for research on human subjects with Brazilian Civil Code, a law that considers many aspects of protection for individuals. In general, medical researchers are unaware of civil legislation and do not realize the legal consequences of any errors caused by their research. First, a summary of the ethical aspect of research on humansubjects is presented, along with the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki, as well as the non-statutory aspect of Brazilian law, which is performed by the Brazilian NationalHealth Council. Second, to demonstrate the inexistence of a lack of legislative consistency in this area, the study analyzes the aspects of Civil Code relative to research on human subjects,as well as legal status, the ability to act, rights to legal status, and civil liability.

Housing and neighborhood quality among undocumented Mexican and Central American immigrants.

Extensive research has documented the challenges that undocumented immigrants face in navigating U.S. labor markets, but relatively little has explored the impact of legal status on residential outcomes despite their widespread repercussions for social well-being. Using data from the 1996-2008 panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation to impute documentation status among Mexican and Central American immigrants, we examine group differences in residential outcomes, including homeownership, housing crowding, satisfaction with neighborhood and housing quality, problems with neighborhood crime/safety, governmental services, and environmental issues, and deficiencies with housing units. Results from our analysis indicate that undocumented householders are far less likely to be homeowners than documented migrants, and also live in more crowded homes, report greater structural deficiencies with their dwellings, and express greater concern about the quality of public services and environmental conditions in their neighborhoods. In comparison to native whites, undocumented migrants' residential circumstances are lacking, but their residential outcomes tend to be superior to those of native-born blacks. Overall, our results highlight the pervasive impact of legal status on stratifying Mexicans' and Central Americans' prospects for successful incorporation, but also underscore the rigidity of the black/nonblack divide structuring American residential contexts.

"Vulnerability, Resiliency, and Adaptation: The Health of Latin Americans during the Migration Process to the United States"

In this paper, we offer a general outlook of the health of Latin Americans (with a special emphasis on Mexicans) during the different stages of the migration process to the U.S. given the usefulness of the social vulnerability concept and given that said vulnerability varies conspicuously across the different stages of the migration process. Severe migrant vulnerability during the transit and crossing has serious negative health consequences. Yet, upon their arrival to the U.S., migrant health is favorable in outcomes such as mortality by many causes of death and in several chronic conditions and risk factors, though these apparent advantages seem to disappear during the process of adaptation to the host society. We discuss potential explanations for the initial health advantage and the sources of vulnerability that explain its erosion, with special emphasis in systematic timely access to health care. Given that migration can affect social vulnerability processes in sending areas, we discuss the potential health consequences for these places and conclude by considering the immigration and health policy implications of these issues for the United States and sending countries, with emphasis on Mexico.

Legal Status and Wage Disparities for Mexican Immigrants.

This paper employs a unique method of imputing the legal status of Mexican immigrants in the 1996-1999 and 2001-2003 panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation to provide new evidence of the role of legal authorization in the U.S. on workers' wages. Using growth curve techniques, we estimate wage trajectories for four groups: documented Mexican immigrants, undocumented Mexican immigrants, U.S-born Mexican Americans, and native non-Latino whites. Our estimates reveal a 17 percent wage disparity between documented and undocumented Mexican immigrant men, and a 9 percent documented-undocumented wage disparity for Mexican immigrant women. We also find that in comparison to authorized Mexicans, undocumented Mexican immigrants have lower returns to human capital and slower wage growth.