Introducción al Capítulo II: Integridad científica: Pilar fundamental de la confianza en la ciencia / Introduction to Chapter II Scientific integrity: Fundamental pillar of trust in science

Los progresos tecnológicos y la mejora en la salud de la población han ocurrido fundamentalmente a la luz de los hallazgos científicos. En un contexto en el cual predomina el paradigma positivista, el método científico constituye la piedra basal del conocimiento y el desarrollo de la humanidad. La ciencia nos ayuda a conocer y comprender entre otras cosas la naturaleza, sus fenómenos y nuestra salud, permitiendo que tomemos decisiones informadas. Una de sus características consiste en estar en constante evolución, poniendo siempre a prueba los saberes previos e impulsando el progreso. El método científico implica por definición, que sus resultados son reproducibles. Sin embargo resulta evidente que para la inmensa mayoría de la población, resulta imposible verificar los hallazgos. Por tal motivo, la adopción de los resultados de las investigaciones para tomar decisiones, radica en última instancia en la confiabilidad de los resultados de dichas investigaciones. Es decir, se basa en la confianza. La decisión de incorporar este tema en el presente congreso, implica el deseo de transitar un camino de reflexión y diálogo sobre cuestiones fundamentales sobre las que debemos actuar para evitar que se llegue a socavar la confianza en los hallazgos científicos, perjudicando a la sociedad en su conjunto. (AU)

Tan lejos de la investigación científica, tan cerca de la inteligencia artificial / So far from scientific research, so close to artificial intelligence

En este editorial se exploran los posibles riesgos que representa el uso de la inteligencia artificial para la elaboración de trabajos académicos y científicos. Además, se presenta una lista de riesgos para la investigación científica elaborada por la plataforma ChatGPT con el objetivo de explorar su precisión en la generación de textos.

This editorial explores the possible risks posed by the use of artificial intelligence for the preparation of academic and scientific work. Additionally, a list of risks for scientific research is presented by the ChatGPT platform with the aim of exploring its accuracy in generating texts.

[Reading Spallanzani today]. / Leyendo a Spallanzani hoy en día.

We remember Lazaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) mainly for his controversy with Needham over spontaneous generation, but he was a man of multiple scientific activities in the fields of biology, mineralogy, physics, mathematics and… volcanology! Called "the biologist of biologists", he developed a series of investigations about reproduction of amphibian, in one of them -Experiences in service to the history of the generation of animals and plants- we have found horrific experiments with frogs, including severe and useless mutilation of males, in order to interrupt its copulation with females, acts he describes as "barbaric", and we estimate inadmissible in the ecclesiastic man he was, even in an epoch in which animals were considered "anima vili" (something without value). A brief review of the use of animals in laboratories shows significant advances in the ethical regulations for this practice, but we believe that these achievements are not enough.

Partnering ethics and chemistry in secondary and university STEM education via an innovatively designed periodic table of chemical elements / Ética y química asociadas en la educación secundaria y universitaria STEM, a través de una tabla periódica de elementos químicos de diseño innovador / Associando ética e química na educação stem secundária e universitária via uma tabela periódica de elementos químicos desenvolvida de forma innovadora

As declared by the United Nations, 2019 is the International Year of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements. Accordingly, an innovative new Periodic Table of Chemical Elements and Ethics [PETE] has been developed as an educational tool for secondary and university STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education. The tool is designed to be used in a case-based approache that is feasible to both individual and small group learners. Specifically, with the new periodic table, STEM becomes aligned with STSE (Science and Technology on Society and Environment), laying a curricular pathway for integrating discussions of ethics into the teaching of chemistry. Presented is the table, as well as sources for pairable ethics cases, and guidance for teachers to create curriculum which facilitates connections between ethics, chemistry, and society.

Según lo declarado por las Naciones Unidas, 2019 es el Año Internacional de la Tabla Periódica de Elementos Químicos. En consecuencia, se ha desarrollado una nueva e innovadora tabla periódica de elementos químicos y ética [PETE] como una herramienta educativa para la educación secundaria y universitaria STEM (Ciencia, Tecnología, Ingeniería y Matemáticas). La herramienta está diseñada para usarse en un enfoque basado en casos que sea factible tanto para estudiantes individuales como para grupos pequeños. Específicamente, con la nueva tabla periódica, STEM se alinea con STSE (Ciencia y Tecnología en Sociedad y Medio Ambiente), estableciendo una vía curricular para integrar las discusiones de ética en la enseñanza de la química. Se presenta la tabla, así como las fuentes de casos de ética que se pueden pactar, y orientación para que los maestros creen un plan de estudios que facilite las conexiones entre la ética, la química y la sociedad.

Como declarado pelas Nações Unidas, 2019 é o Ano Internacional da Tabela Periódica de Elementos Químicos. Portanto, uma inovadora e nova Tabela Periódica de Elementos Químicos e Ética (PETE, sigla em inglês) foi desenvolvida como uma ferramenta educacional para educação STEM (sigla em inglês para Ciência, Tecnologia, Engenharia e Matemática) secundária e universitária. A ferramenta é elaborada para ser usada em uma abordagem baseada em casos, viável tanto para aprendizagem individual como de pequenos grupos. Especificamente, com a nova tabela periódica, STEM se alinha com STSE (sigla em inglês para Ciência e Tecnologia na Sociedade e Ambiente), estabelecendo uma via curricular para integrar discussões de ética no ensino de química. Apresenta-se a tabela, bem como fontes de casos éticos pareados, e orientação para professores criarem um currículo que facilite conexões entre ética, química e sociedade.

Leyendo a Spallanzani hoy en día / Reading Spallanzani today

Resumen Recordamos al abate Lázaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) fundamentalmente por su victoriosa contienda con Needham sobre la generación espontánea, pero fue un hombre de múltiples intereses en distintos campos de la ciencia, desde la biología a la volcanología. Se lo llamó el "biólogo de los biólogos", desarrollando una serie de investigaciones sobre la reproducción de los anfibios, en una de las cuales - "Experiencias al servicio de la historia de la generación de animales y plantas" - el lector moderno se estremece de horror ante las crueles mutilaciones que infligiera a los sapos machos tratando de interrumpir su copulación con las hembras. Él mismo las califica de "bárbaras" estas torturas, inadmisibles en un hombre que detentaba una jerarquía eclesiástica, aún en una época como la suya, en que se calificaba a los animales como "anima vili" (cosa sin valor). Mucho se ha avanzado hoy en día en resguardo de nuestros "hermanos menores", como los llamara San Francisco, pero aún falta mucho que hacer en la regulación de la experimentación científica que los utiliza.

Abstract We remember Lazaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) mainly for his controversy with Needham over spontaneous generation, but he was a man of multiple scientific activities in the fields of biology, mineralogy, physics, mathematics and… volcanology! Called "the biologist of biologists", he developed a series of investigations about reproduction of amphibian, in one of them -Experiences in service to the history of the generation of animals and plants- we have found horrific experiments with frogs, including severe and useless mutilation of males, in order to interrupt its copulation with females, acts he describes as "barbaric", and we estimate inadmissible in the ecclesiastic man he was, even in an epoch in which animals were considered "anima vili" (something without value). A brief review of the use of animals in laboratories shows significant advances in the ethical regulations for this practice, but we believe that these achievements are not enough.

Aproximación ética científica al doble efecto o único bien posible en el aborto terapéutico / Scientific ethical approach to double effect or only possible good in therapeutic abortion / Aproximação ética científica ao duplo efeito ou único bem possível no aborto terapêutico

El estudio muestra como la doctrina o principio del doble efecto (DDE) de una acción con efecto secundario negativo no puede aplicarse a todos los casos de aborto terapéutico (AT). Con el análisis de las causas e indicación de AT se demuestra que solo algunos de estos corresponden a DDE. Cuando no es el feto el que lleva a la madre a tener un embarazo de alto riesgo con amenaza de daño severo o muerte para ella, el caso puede adscribirse a la DDE; cuando es el feto directa o indirectamente el que causa a lleva a ese riesgo materno, el caso no se adscribe a la DDE. Si el feto es la causa de la muerte inminente de la madre, la remoción de la causa, que es la terapia adecuada, coincide con matarlo; entonces la acción buena (salvar a la madre tratándola causalmente) es la misma que la mala (matar al feto), situación que no puede asimilarse sea a la DDE o a la doctrina del mal menor. Más aún, decidir no interrumpir el embarazo produciría la muerte de la madre y el feto. El caso debería adscribirse al principio del único bien posible.

This study shows the inapplicability of the doctrine of double effect (DDE) to all the cases of therapeutic abortion (TA). The causes of the maternal risk define cases that cannot be included in the DDE. When it is not the embryo or fetus that produces the mother pathology the case can be assigned to the DDE. When the embryo or fetus produces directly or indirectly the process that threatens the mother’s life the case cannot be assigned to the DDE. If the fetus is the cause of the imminent mother’s death, the removal of the cause, that is the proper therapy, coincides with killing him or her; then the good action (to save therapeutically the mother) is the same to the bad action (to kill the fetus) and this situation cannot be assimilated either to the DDE or to the doctrine of the lesser evil. Deciding not to kill the fetus will produce the death of the mother and the fetus. So this situation should be ascribed to the principle of the unique possible well.

O estudo mostra como a doutrina ou princípio do duplo efeito (DDE) de uma ação com efeito secundário negativo não pode aplicar-se a todos os casos de aborto terapêutico (AT). Com a análise das causas e indicação de AT se demonstra que só alguns destes correspondem a DDE. Quando não é o feto que leva a mãe a ter uma gravidez de alto risco com ameaça de dano severo ou morte para ela, o caso pode circunscrever-se à DDE; quando é o feto direta ou indiretamente quem causa ou leva a esse risco materno, o caso não se circunscreve a DDE. Se o feto é a causa da morte iminente da mãe, a remoção da causa, que é a terapia adequada, coincide em matá-lo; então a ação boa (salvar a mãe tratando-a causalmente) é a mesma que a má (matar o feto), situação que não pode assimilar-se à DDE ou à doutrina do mal menor. Mais ainda, decidir não interromper a gravidez produziria a morte da mãe e do feto. O caso deveria circunscrever-se ao princípio do único bem possível.

Ethics in Publishing: Complexity Science and Human Factors Offer Insights to Develop a Just Culture.

While ethics in publishing has been increasingly debated, there seems to be a lack of a theoretical framework for making sense of existing rules of behavior as well as for designing, managing and enforcing such rules. This letter argues that systems-oriented disciplines, such as complexity science and human factors, offer insights into new ways of dealing with ethics in publishing. Some examples of insights are presented. Also, a call is made for empirical studies that unveil the context and details of both retracted papers and the process of writing and publishing academic papers. This is expected to shed light on the complexity of the publication system as well as to support the development of a just culture, in which all participants are accountable.

Prior Publication and Redundancy in Contemporary Science: Are Authors and Editors at the Crossroads?

We discuss prior publication and redundancy in contemporary science in the context of changing perceptions of originality in the communication of research results. These perceptions have been changing in the publication realm, particularly in the last 15 years. Presenting a brief overview of the literature, we address some of the conflicts that are likely to arise between authors and editors. We illustrate our approach with conference presentations that are later published as journal articles and focus on a recent retraction of an article that had been previously published as a conference proceedings. Although we do not make definitive pronouncements on the matter-as many concepts are evolving-we do argue that conference papers that contain sufficient details for others to attempt a replication and are indexed in scientific databases such as PubMed, challenge some currently held assumptions of prior publication and originality in the sciences. Our view is that these important issues are in need of further clarification and harmonization within the science publishing community. This need is more evident when we consider current notions of research integrity when it comes to communication to peers. Revisiting long-standing views about what constitutes prior publication and developing a clearer set of guidelines for authors and editors to follow should reduce conflicts in the research environment, which already exerts considerable pressure, especially on newcomers in academia. However, while clearer guidelines are timely, developing them is only part of the challenge. The present times seem to call for deeper changes in the research and publication systems.

Scientific integrity in Brazil.

This article focuses on scientific integrity and the identification of predisposing factors to scientific misconduct in Brazil. Brazilian scientific production has increased in the last ten years, but the quality of the articles has decreased. Pressure on researchers and students for increasing scientific production may contribute to scientific misconduct. Cases of misconduct in science have been recently denounced in the country. Brazil has important institutions for controlling ethical and safety aspects of human research, but there is a lack of specific offices to investigate suspected cases of misconduct and policies to deal with scientific dishonesty.

Inovação biomédica e o animal não humano em pesquisa: controvérsias científicas e reflexões éticas para contribuição na implementação de políticas públicas de técnicas substitutivas ao uso de animais em pesquisa, ensino e indústria / Biomedical innovation and the non-human animal research: scientific controversies and ethical reflections contribution to the implementation of public policies substitutive techniques to animal use in research, teaching and industry

A experimentação animal é uma prática extremamente incorporada à ciência biomédica moderna, com raízes desde a Antiguidade, mas que foi cada vez mais se desenvolvendo, adquirindo características bem definidas. O animal não humano, no contexto da experimentação, é um ser vulnerado, enclausurado dentro de uma estrutura muito bem definida, que mantém um discurso focado na excelência do modelo do animal na pesquisa e testes, com o objetivo de garantir a manutenção dessas práticas. No entanto, ao analisarmos os dados científicos obtidos com a experimentação animal, que visa primariamente um possível benefício humano, assim como as argumentações éticas relativas ao respeito à vida e ao sofrimento do animal envoltas nesta situação, a argumentação ética prepondera sobre uma base científica cuja eficácia é também extremamente questionável. Partindo de uma análise crítica da aplicação do modelo animal como padrão da pesquisa científica e da concepção ética do reconhecimento da vulnerabilidade do animal não humano na experimentação, propomos que esta reflexão colabore com políticas públicas que incentivem e implementem as técnicas substitutivas ao uso de animais não humanos em pesquisa, testes da indústria e ensino na área biomédica no Brasil

Medicina Convencional y Medicina Natural y Tradicional: razones y sinrazones metodológicas / Conventional Medicine and Natural and Traditional Medicine: methodological reasons and unreasons

El presente trabajo constituye la primera de las dos partes en que se ha organizado un conjunto de observaciones derivadas de la réplica realizada por el Dr. Jorge García Salman a nuestro artículo El debate sobre la Medicina Natural y Tradicional y sus implicaciones para la salud pública, publicado en esta misma revista. Expresamos aquí las zonas de confluencia con los argumentos expuestos por el García Salman y seguidamente analizamos aquellos criterios relacionados con aspectos metodológicos que merecen respuesta. Se ofrecen criterios en defensa del método científico como proceso universalmente aceptado para realizar aportes a la ciencia y se cuestiona que no sea utilizado con sistematicidad en el ámbito de la Medicina Natural y Tradicional. Se argumenta acerca de la experimentación como conquista intelectual y se fundamenta que los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados bien diseñados aportan la manera más penetrante y reveladora de hacer juicios sobre causalidad en los procesos biomédicos. Se exponen elementos esenciales relacionados con el papel del efecto placebo en la investigación. Se concluye que la mayor expresión de respeto a la ciencia en general, y a la Medicina Natural y Tradicional en particular, reside en señalar sus ocasionales errores, de los cuales se ofrecen numerosos ejemplos(AU)

The present paper is the first of the two parts showing a set of observations derived from Dr. Jorge Garcia Salman's reply to the article entitled The debate on Natural and Traditional Medicine and its implications for the public health published by this journal. The points of convergence with the opinions of Garcia Salman were stated and then an analysis was made on the criteria about the methodological aspects that deserve to be answered. Some criteria to defend the scientific method as a universally accepted process to make contributions to science were offered, and at the same time, the non-systematic use of this process by the Natural and Traditional Medicine was questioned. Some arguments were provided about the clinical experimentation as an intellectual conquest as well as the role of the randomized clinicals trials which provides the deepest and most revealing way of developing criteria about causality in the biomedical processes. Likewise, essential elements on the role of placebo in research were presented. It was concluded that the highest expression of respect to science in general and to Natural and Traditional Medicine in particular, lies in pointing out their occasional errors of which a number of examples was offered(AU)

La Medicina Natural y Tradicional y la Medicina Convencional no responden a paradigmas en pugna / Conventional Medicine and Natural and Traditional Medicine do not respond to conflicting paradigms

La presente contribución complementa el trabajo Medicina Convencional y Medicina Natural y Tradicional: razones y sinrazones metodológicas, publicado por nosotros en este mismo número de la Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. La Medicina Natural y Tradicional, tal y como se desarrolla en nuestro país, exige un salto cualitativo que la ponga a tono con las demandas de ejercer la autocrítica, inherente a todo esfuerzo científico verdadero. Se reflexiona en torno a que dicha disciplina tiene un recorrido que transitar para alcanzar un desarrollo adecuado. Se fundamenta la necesidad de superar la precariedad teórico conceptual, con el fin de separarla de esoterismos y expresiones pseudocientíficas que actualmente lastran su posición en los medios académicos. Se reivindica e ilustra la importancia tanto metodológica como ética de manejar la información con el debido rigor y superar las endebleces metodológicas que suelen exhibir sus publicaciones. Fundamentamos la idea de que no existen paradigmas contradictorios que pugnen por una hegemonía conceptual y operativa. Se sostiene y justifica la convicción de que ha de prevalecer un cuerpo teórico-práctico coherente con las conquistas científicas ya conseguidas, independientemente de su origen(AU)

This is the second part of the article Conventional Medicine, and Natural and Traditional Medicine: reasons and unreasons published in this same issue of Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. This discipline, as it is developed in our country, requires a qualitative leap to be in tune with the demands for self-criticism inherent to every true scientific effort. Reflections were also made about the road that the Natural and Traditional Medicine must go in order to reach an adequate level of development. It is necessary to overcome the existing conceptual and theoretical scarcities to separate this discipline from esoteric elements and pseudoscientific expressions which affect its position in the academic circles. The ethical and methodological importance of handling information with due rigor and of overcoming methodological weaknesses in their publication were illustrated and underlined. The idea of non-existence of contradictory paradigms striving for conceptual hegemony was substantiated. This paper finally justified and supported the conviction that a coherent body of theories and practices in line with the already known accomplishments must prevail, regardless of their origin(AU)

Medicina Convencional y Medicina Natural y Tradicional: razones y sinrazones metodológicas / Conventional Medicine and Natural and Traditional Medicine: methodological reasons and unreasons

El presente trabajo constituye la primera de las dos partes en que se ha organizado un conjunto de observaciones derivadas de la réplica realizada por el Dr. Jorge García Salman a nuestro artículo El debate sobre la Medicina Natural y Tradicional y sus implicaciones para la salud pública, publicado en esta misma revista. Expresamos aquí las zonas de confluencia con los argumentos expuestos por el García Salman y seguidamente analizamos aquellos criterios relacionados con aspectos metodológicos que merecen respuesta. Se ofrecen criterios en defensa del método científico como proceso universalmente aceptado para realizar aportes a la ciencia y se cuestiona que no sea utilizado con sistematicidad en el ámbito de la Medicina Natural y Tradicional. Se argumenta acerca de la experimentación como conquista intelectual y se fundamenta que los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados bien diseñados aportan la manera más penetrante y reveladora de hacer juicios sobre causalidad en los procesos biomédicos. Se exponen elementos esenciales relacionados con el papel del efecto placebo en la investigación. Se concluye que la mayor expresión de respeto a la ciencia en general, y a la Medicina Natural y Tradicional en particular, reside en señalar sus ocasionales errores, de los cuales se ofrecen numerosos ejemplos

The present paper is the first of the two parts showing a set of observations derived from Dr. Jorge Garcia Salman's reply to the article entitled The debate on Natural and Traditional Medicine and its implications for the public health published by this journal. The points of convergence with the opinions of Garcia Salman were stated and then an analysis was made on the criteria about the methodological aspects that deserve to be answered. Some criteria to defend the scientific method as a universally accepted process to make contributions to science were offered, and at the same time, the non-systematic use of this process by the Natural and Traditional Medicine was questioned. Some arguments were provided about the clinical experimentation as an intellectual conquest as well as the role of the randomized clinicals trials which provides the deepest and most revealing way of developing criteria about causality in the biomedical processes. Likewise, essential elements on the role of placebo in research were presented. It was concluded that the highest expression of respect to science in general and to Natural and Traditional Medicine in particular, lies in pointing out their occasional errors of which a number of examples was offered

La Medicina Natural y Tradicional y la Medicina Convencional no responden a paradigmas en pugna / Conventional Medicine and Natural and Traditional Medicine do not respond to conflicting paradigms

La presente contribución complementa el trabajo Medicina Convencional y Medicina Natural y Tradicional: razones y sinrazones metodológicas, publicado por nosotros en este mismo número de la Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. La Medicina Natural y Tradicional, tal y como se desarrolla en nuestro país, exige un salto cualitativo que la ponga a tono con las demandas de ejercer la autocrítica, inherente a todo esfuerzo científico verdadero. Se reflexiona en torno a que dicha disciplina tiene un recorrido que transitar para alcanzar un desarrollo adecuado. Se fundamenta la necesidad de superar la precariedad teórico conceptual, con el fin de separarla de esoterismos y expresiones pseudocientíficas que actualmente lastran su posición en los medios académicos. Se reivindica e ilustra la importancia tanto metodológica como ética de manejar la información con el debido rigor y superar las endebleces metodológicas que suelen exhibir sus publicaciones. Fundamentamos la idea de que no existen paradigmas contradictorios que pugnen por una hegemonía conceptual y operativa. Se sostiene y justifica la convicción de que ha de prevalecer un cuerpo teórico-práctico coherente con las conquistas científicas ya conseguidas, independientemente de su origen

This is the second part of the article Conventional Medicine, and Natural and Traditional Medicine: reasons and unreasons published in this same issue of Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. This discipline, as it is developed in our country, requires a qualitative leap to be in tune with the demands for self-criticism inherent to every true scientific effort. Reflections were also made about the road that the Natural and Traditional Medicine must go in order to reach an adequate level of development. It is necessary to overcome the existing conceptual and theoretical scarcities to separate this discipline from esoteric elements and pseudoscientific expressions which affect its position in the academic circles. The ethical and methodological importance of handling information with due rigor and of overcoming methodological weaknesses in their publication were illustrated and underlined. The idea of non-existence of contradictory paradigms striving for conceptual hegemony was substantiated. This paper finally justified and supported the conviction that a coherent body of theories and practices in line with the already known accomplishments must prevail, regardless of their origin

Review: Public perspectives on the utilization of human placentas in scientific research and medicine.

Placental tissues are frequently utilized by scientists studying pregnancy and reproduction and in diverse fields including immunology, stem cell research, genetics, cancer research, and tissue engineering, as well as by clinicians in many therapies. Though the utilization of the human placenta in science and medicine has benefitted many people, little is known about public perspectives of this phenomenon. This review addresses placental donation, collection, and utilization in science and medicine, focusing on public perspectives. Cultural values and traditions, ethical paradigms and concerns, public understandings of science and medicine, and political considerations may impact perceptions of the utilization of the placenta in science and medicine, but systematic study is lacking. It is argued that knowledge of public views gained from empirical investigation may underpin the development of collection protocols and research projects that are more responsive to public will, spur more extensive utilization in science and medicine of this unique organ, and/or aid in the realization of the mobilization of knowledge about the placenta for clinical and educational ends. New avenues for research on public perspectives of the placenta are proposed.