International heterogeneity in coronavirus disease 2019 pediatric mortality rates / Heterogeneidad internacional en las tasas de mortalidad pediátrica por COVID-19

Abstract Background: Severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is infrequent in children and shows a mortality rate of around 0.08%. This study aims to explore international differences in the pediatric mortality rate. Methods: We analyzed several countries with populations over 5 million that report disaggregated data of COVID-19 deaths by quinquennial or decennial age groups. Data were extracted from COVID-19 cases and deaths by age database, National Ministeries of Health, and the World Health Organization. Results: We included 23 countries in the analysis. Pediatric mortality varied from 0 to 12.1 deaths per million children of the corresponding age group, with the highest rate in Peru. In most countries, deaths were more frequent in the 0-4-year-old age group, except for Brazil. The pediatric/general COVID-19 mortality showed a great variation and ranged from 0% (Republic of Korea) to 10.4% (India). Pediatric and pediatric/general COVID mortality correlates strongly with 2018 neonatal mortality (r = 0.77, p < 0.001; and r = 0.88, p < 0.001, respectively), while shows a moderate or no correlation (r = 0.47, p = 0.02; and r = 0.19, p = 0.38, respectively) with COVID-19 mortality in the general population. Conclusions: International heterogeneity in pediatric COVID-19 mortality importantly parallels historical neonatal mortality. Neonatal mortality is a well-known index of the quality of a country's health system, which points to the importance of social determinants of health in pediatric COVID-19 mortality disparities. This issue should be further explored.

Resumen Introducción: La COVID-19 grave es poco frecuente en la infancia. El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar las diferencias en la tasa de mortalidad internacional por COVID-19 en la población pediátrica. Método: Se analizaron países con poblaciones superiores a 5 millones de habitantes que reporten muertes por COVID-19 con datos desglosados por grupos de edad quinquenales o decenales. Los datos se extrajeron de la base de datos COVerAge-DBs, de los ministerios nacionales de salud y de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Resultados: Se incluyeron 23 países. La mortalidad pediátrica varió de 0 a 12.1 muertes por millón de personas del grupo de edad correspondiente, con la tasa más alta en Perú. En la mayoría de los países, las muertes fueron más frecuentes en el grupo de 0 a 4 años, excepto en Brasil. La mortalidad pediátrica/general por COVID-19 mostró una gran variación entre países y osciló entre el 0% (República de Corea) y el 10.4% (India). La mortalidad pediátrica y pediátrica/general por COVID-19 se correlaciona fuertemente con la mortalidad neonatal de 2018, mientras que tiene una moderada o nula correlación con la mortalidad por COVID-19 en la población general. Conclusiones: Existe una importante heterogeneidad internacional en la mortalidad pediátrica por COVID-19, que es paralela a la mortalidad neonatal histórica, la cual es un indicador de la calidad de los sistemas de salud y señala la importancia de los determinantes sociales de la salud en las disparidades de mortalidad pediátrica por COVID-19. Este tema debe explorarse a fondo.

COVID-19 pandemic: challenges ahead / Pandemia de COVID-19: retos por enfrentar

Abstract Since December 2019, health systems worldwide have faced the pandemic caused by the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. The pandemic began in China and has spread throughout the world. This new coronavirus has a high transmission capacity and elevated lethality in people over 60 years old and in those with risk factors (obesity, diabetes, and systemic arterial hypertension); those characteristics have a different proportion in each country. At present, there is no specific, effective, and safe treatment to treat this virus. In this review, an analysis is made on the differences in epidemiological aspects of the disease and its presentation in pediatric patients; the poorly-based recommendation for using an empirical combination of antimalarials plus antimicrobials as antiviral treatment; the indication of intravenous steroids; and the possible influence of antihypertensive drugs on the course of the disease.

Resumen A partir de diciembre de 2019, los sistemas de salud de todos los países se han enfrentado a la pandemia causada por un nuevo coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), el cual fue notificado por primera vez en China y se ha esparcido por todo el mundo. Este nuevo coronavirus posee una alta capacidad para transmitirse. A escala mundial la letalidad ha sido más alta en la población mayor de 60 años y en aquellos que tienen factores de riesgo (obesidad, diabetes e hipertensión arterial sistémica). Sin embargo, estas características varían en proporción en cada país. Hasta el momento no hay un tratamiento específico, eficaz y seguro para combatir este virus. En este artículo se realiza un análisis sobre las diferencias globales en los aspectos epidemiológicos y con relación a su presentación en pacientes pediátricos, así como de la recomendación, con pobre fundamento, del uso de la combinación de antimaláricos y antimicrobianos empíricos como antivirales. También se analizan la indicación de esteroides intravenosos y la posible influencia de los fármacos antihipertensivos en el curso de la enfermedad.

Principales problemas identificados en la investigación y atención de víctimas de la explotación sexual comercial infantil en México / Principal problems identified in research on and treatment of victims of the commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) in Mexico

The purpose of this study is to identify and describe the actions designed to combat the commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) which jeopardizes or affects the victims of exploitation. To this end, the paper analyzes the paradoxical results obtained in the research and actions to combat CSEC, implemented under the auspices of the institutions to promote research on CSEC and the prevention, protection and care of child victims of the phenomenon. These results were obtained by the research team when it systematized 16 CSEC diagnoses undertaken in various parts of the country and from the information derived from the fieldwork carried out between 2000 and 2005 by the Inter-Institutional Committees to combat CSEC and at the institutions for the protection and care of child victims of sexual exploitation. The fieldwork involved participant observation during the working meetings of the Inter-Institutional Committees and at the <

El objetivo del presente trabajo es identificar y describir las acciones en contra de la explotación sexual comercial infantil (ESCI) que ponen en riesgo o afectan a las víctimas de dicha explotación. Para ello, se documentan los resultados paradójicos obtenidos en la investigación y en las acciones contra la ESCI, implementadas bajo el auspicio de instituciones promotoras de la investigación de la ESCI y de la prevención, protección y atención a victimas infantiles del fenómeno. Estos resultados fueron obtenidos por el equipo de investigación al desarrollar una sistematización de 16 diagnósticos de la ESCI promovidos en diferentes partes del país, y al sistematizar la información del trabajo de campo desarrollado entre los años 2000 y 2005, en los comités interinstitucionales en contra de la ESCI, y en instituciones de atención de las víctimas infantiles de la explotación sexual. El trabajo de campo consistió en la realización de observación participante durante las reuniones de trabajo de los comités interinstitucionales y en los albergues de <

Oncocercosis: ¿la próxima enfermedad eliminable en México? / Onchocerciasis: the next eliminable disease in México?

La oncocercosis es la segunda causa de ceguera a escala mundial, después del tracoma, según la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Fue descubierta en América por Rodolfo Robles en Guatemala, en 1915 (enfermedad de Robles); en 1923 en Chiapas y en 1926 en Oaxaca, México. En 1930 se estableció el programa para su control; es el más antiguo del país y ha realizado trabajos ininterrumpidamente hasta la fecha. Se pueden describir tres grandes etapas del programa para el control de la oncocercosis: a) de 1930-1946 se llevó a cabo la lucha antilarvaria con creolina, la eliminación de larvas de las corrientes de agua y la extirpación de nódulos; b) la administración de la dietilcarbamazina en 1947, la extirpación de nódulos y la aplicación de DDT en 1952; y c) en 1993 la eliminación de la enfermedad con el tratamiento con ivermectina y la extirpación de nódulos. Hasta 1980 se observaba una notificación promedio de 20 mil casos anuales pero, a partir de 1993, al iniciar la administración de ivermectina en dos rondas anuales, se redujo a menos de 100 casos nuevos por año para finales del año 2000 y se eliminó la transmisión en dos focos (en el norte de Oaxaca y en Chamula, en Chiapas), aunque todavía permanece en uno (en Soconusco, Chiapas). En el presente artículo nos referimos a la lucha, durante los últimos 17 años, en contra de la oncocercosis y qué nos permite suponer que, en breve, podrá ser erradicada del país.

According to the World Health Organization, onchocerciasis is the second cause of global blindness after trachoma. It was first discovered in America by Rodolfo Robles in Guatemala in 1915 (Robles's disease); in Chiapas, Mexico in 1923; and in Oaxaca in 1926. In 1930, the first control program was established in Mexico that, to date, has worked uninterruptedly. Three stages of the program can be described: a) from 1930-1946 the antilarvae campaign with creolin was carried out along with the elimination of larvae from water and the removal of nodules; (b) administration of diethylcarbamazine in 1947, removal of nodules and application of DDT in 1952; and c) in 1993 the elimination of the disease with ivermectin treatment and the removal of nodules. Until 1980, an average of 20,000 cases have been reported each year. Since 1993, with the initiation of the administration of ivermectin in two annual doses, the incidence was reduced to <100 new cases per year by the end of 2000 and the transmission in two foci (northern Oaxaca and in Chamula in Chiapas) has been deleted, with one remaining in Soconusco, Chiapas. In this article, we report on the campaign against river blindness during the past 17 years and why we assume that, in brief, this disease can be eliminated in Mexico.

Inequidades de género, abuso de sustancias y barreras al tratamiento en mujeres en prisión / Gender inequities, substance abuse and treatment barriers in women in prison

The vast majority of women in Mexican prisons have several mental health disorders and addictions, as well as problems obtaining access to treatment for this type of problems. These women's personal background and prison conditions reflect the unresolved problems of the country, such as education and illiteracy, access to health and housing and inequity in the justice systems. The literature has shown that substance abuse affects female prisoners to a greater extent than other women, and that their disadvantaged socio-economic status makes them more likely to engage in and continue substance abuse. Other aspects that exacerbate this vulnerability are their low educational attainment, lack of job skills, and exposure to stigmatization and discrimination in addition to the physical and psychological consequences of addictive behavior. One aspect that has been internationally acknowledged is that gender inequities make women's health more vulnerable, particularly that of female prisoners, since they have greater health deficits and more treatment barriers. International literature has shown that female users of psychoactive substances in general face more barriers than men in seeking or continuing treatment. Research has also shown that the most common personal barriers in women are denial, shame and guilt. Likewise, women's anxiety and depressive disorders tend to be more prevalent and severe, which in turn prevents them from seeking help when they have substance abuse problems. The most common family-related barriers are the difficulty of attending treatment due to family, partner or childcare obligations, pregnancy or fear of losing custody of their children. The main barriers faced by women regarding treatment institutions are the insensitivity or inadequate training of the staff that work there, prejudice and negative attitudes towards women, lack of information on available treatment and extremely long waiting lists. As a result of the above, the aim of this study is to document the barriers to the treatment of addictions of female prisoners, a disadvantaged group that has rarely been studied in Mexico, in order to understand certain aspects related to this population's access to treatment and continuation of the latter. The design used for this research is an ex post facto, descriptive, non-experimental, cross-sectional field study. The sample consisted of 213 women, chosen for convenience, who met the following criteria: alcohol and drug users, ages 18 to 65, able to read and write and with no psychiatric disorders or handicaps that would prevent the interview. The women that participated in this study were drawn from two Mexico City prisons: the Centro Preventivo Femenil Oriente, which houses women that have been accused, tried and sentenced, and the Centro de Readaptación Social Femenil Tepepan, where the inmates are women who have been sentenced and also have psychiatric problems. The ethical care observed included informing the interviewees of the objectives of the study, voluntary participation, confidential handling of the information and the use of witnesses, as well as guaranteeing participants the right to abandon the study and not to answer questions they found uncomfortable. The instrument was designed as a semi-structured interview with 242 questions covering various areas including Allen's Questionnaire on Treatment Barriers. It can be self-administered by the respondents, has internal consistency, construct and content validity and was adapted by Romero (2002). Some of the respondents had to have the questionnaire read out to them because of their low educational attainment. This questionnaire consists of 41 items, 30 of which are divided into three categories: 1. characteristics of treatment services, 2. beliefs, feelings or thoughts, and 3. socio-environmental aspects. Each category also includes an open question to discover other types of barriers not included in the three categories. The results yielded the following socio-demographic profile of the interviewees: 45.5% were in the 28 to 40 year age group; and had had 6 or less years' education (41.3%) or completed junior high school (36.2%). The majority were single (48.6%) or common law (21.6%), while 50.7% had children under the age of 18. Certain other characteristics of this sample such as depression, violence and alcohol and drug use have been reported in other studies. Of the total group of women that had received treatment at some time in their lives, 52.6% (n = 112) mentioned some type of barrier to treatment for addictions. A total of 29.1% (n = 62) of these women mentioned some type of barrier to treatment for alcohol use, while 44.1 % (n = 94) cited some type of barrier to treatment for drug use. Lastly, 39.2% (n = 44) mentioned some type of barrier to treatment for both types of consumption. An analysis of the treatment sub-scale by socio-demographic variable showed greater difficulty in obtaining treatment among women ages 28 to 40 and among those with children under 18. Statistically significant differences were observed regarding the type of offense (robbery) and availability of treatment. As for the beliefs, feelings and thoughts sub-scale, statistically significant differences were found among women with children under 18 and those finding it hard to abandon consumption. The sub-scale related to situational aspects, such as rejection from friends, proved to be the main barrier to enter treatment and was statistically significant among single women. The results of this study pose challenges to the health and mental health service sector regarding the timely treatment and rehabilitation of marginalized women. Likewise, acknowledging gender inequities is crucial when it comes to designing health promotion strategies. Without this perspective, their effectiveness could be jeopardized and gender inequalities actually exacerbated.

La gran mayoría de las mujeres recluidas en las prisiones de México presentan una gran cantidad de trastornos de salud mental y adicciones, así como dificultades para acceder al tratamiento para este tipo de problemas. Los antecedentes personales y las condiciones de reclusión de estas mujeres reflejan los problemas no resueltos del país como son educación y analfabetismo, acceso a la salud, vivienda e inequidad en los sistemas de procuración de justicia. En la bibliografía se ha señalado que el abuso de sustancias afecta a las mujeres presas en mayor medida que a otras mujeres y que su situación socioeconómica desfavorable las hace más susceptibles de incidir y prevalecer en la conducta de abuso de sustancias. Otros aspectos que acentúan esta vulnerabilidad son el bajo nivel educativo, las pocas habilidades para el trabajo, la exposición a la estigmatización y la discriminación, además de las consecuencias físicas y psicológicas de la conducta adictiva. Un aspecto reconocido internacionalmente es que las inequidades de género vulneran de manera particular la salud de las mujeres, lo cual es aún más evidente en las mujeres presas, pues presentan mayores déficits en su salud y mayor número de barreras al tratamiento. Se ha documentado en la bibliografía internacional que las usuarias de sustancias psicoactivas en general se enfrentan a un mayor número de barreras que los hombres para buscar o seguir un tratamiento. Por lo anterior, el objetivo del estudio es documentar las barreras al tratamiento de adicciones de mujeres en prisión, una población desfavorecida poco estudiada en México a fin de entender algunos aspectos relacionados con el acceso a tratamientos de esta población y su permanencia en ellos. El diseño utilizado para esta investigación corresponde a un estudio de campo transversal no experimental, descriptivo, ex post facto. La muestra se conformó de 213 mujeres, seleccionadas por conveniencia, con los siguientes criterios: usuarias de alcohol y drogas, edad de 1 8 a 65 años, que supieran leer y escribir, sin trastorno psiquiátrico o discapacidad que impidiera la entrevista. Las mujeres que participaron en este estudio se seleccionaron de dos prisiones de la Ciudad de México: el Centro Preventivo Femenil Oriente, donde se encuentran mujeres indiciadas, procesadas y sentenciadas, y el Centro de Readaptación Social Femenil Tepepan, donde se encuentran mujeres sentenciadas y con problemas psiquiátricos. Los cuidados éticos observados en el estudio fueron: información de los objetivos a las entrevistadas, participación voluntaria, confidencialidad de la información, empleo de testigos, así como el derecho de abandonar el estudio y de no responder aquellas preguntas que les resultasen incómodas. El instrumento empleado tuvo un formato de entrevista semiestructurada con 242 preguntas que abarcan diversas áreas, entre ellas, el <

Aproximación de las redes sociales: una vía alterna para el estudio de la conducta de uso de drogas y su tratamiento / Social networks approach: an alternative route for the study of the drug use conduct and its treatment

Introduction The purpose of this article is to show the principal contributions of the social network perspective to the understanding of drug use behavior and its treatment, based on a review of studies undertaken using this approach. The study of social networks has become a new means of explaining the causality of numerous social phenomena. It has proved to be a valuable contribution to the understanding of various problems related to individuals' physical and mental health, including drug use behavior. The literature has shown that the study of social networks contains the key to understanding drug use initiation and progression over time, since it has been proved that persons that use and abuse drugs are often surrounded by friends, relatives and acquaintances that abuse these substances or approve of this behavior. Paradigm of social networks and drug consumption This approach comprises a set of theories, methods and techniques used to understand social relations and the way these relations can influence individual and group behavior. This perspective assumes that the social network influences its members' behavior to a certain extent and that the degree of influence will depend on the way this network is shaped, the person's level of integration within the latter, the position the individual occupies, how he is linked to other members of the network and how important these links are in his life. Social network studies analyze the relationships established by individuals by examining their social network, defined as the set of significant individuals, family, friends and relationships established at school, university or work. They also analyze various components of social networks, such as their structure, type and the quality of the links and their function. Within the field of the study of addictive behavior, the social network perspective has proved useful in examining the pattern of individuals' relationships within their groups, analyzing the impact of this pattern on the level of similarity in substance use in these groups, and evaluating the influence of the peer group on behavior. Influence of social network on drug use behavior Various studies have repeatedly pointed out the influence of social networks on the various stages of addiction (starting, habituation and stopping). They have also shown that drug users' networks undergo significant changes during each of these stages. Several social factors have been linked to the starting, use and abuse of licit and illicit substances. The family, the prevailing norms in social networks and peer influence are the social aspects that have been most positively associated with this behavior. As with starting and becoming accustomed to drug use, the family and the prevailing norms among members of the social network are regarded in the literature as prominent factors in stopping substance abuse. Characteristics of drug users' social networks Several studies have been conducted to determine the nature of drug users' networks. These studies are based on comparative analyses of the characteristics of drug users' and non-users' networks. They also analyze whether the characteristics of these networks vary according to certain variables such as sex, age, race, type of drug, etc. Drug users' networks are known to be generally smaller. It has also been reported that their networks are clearly distinct from those of the normal population, containing a larger number of abusers (including friends and family members) and persons with psychiatric dysfunctions. Differences have also been found by type of drug; for example, opiate users' networks comprise members involved in illegal behaviors, as opposed to other drug users' networks. Other studies have also reported differences in networks as regards gender, the most common one being that female drug users receive less social support from their networks than their male counterparts. Influence of social networks on treatment Most studies to determine the role of social links in the treatment and recovery of persons with drug use problems have highlighted the importance of the support of both relatives and friends in seeking treatment in a timely fashion and obtaining positive results both during and after treatment. It has been shown that specific structures in drug users' networks are closely linked to certain treatment-resistant behaviors and that seeking timely treatment, being able to stop taking drugs and successful treatment are possible thanks to the help of a network of relatives and friends with a high level of support. Conclusions Studies on social networks can provide a complementary approach to documenting and determining, through the analysis of individuals' interpersonal relations, the influence of the social context on behaviors related to substance use. The use of the social network approach has produced a considerable amount of literature throughout the world, which has permitted the development of new knowledge for the theoretical advancement of this phenomenon, as well as a set of instruments and techniques for supporting the work of researchers dedicated to explaining this problem in specific contexts.

Introducción En la bibliografía se ha señalado que el estudio de las redes sociales contiene claves importantes para comprender el inicio y la progresión del uso de drogas a lo largo del tiempo, pues se ha identificado que las personas que usan y abusan de las drogas están rodeadas a menudo de amigos, familiares y/o conocidos que abusan de estas sustancias o personas que aprueban esta conducta. El propósito de este artículo es mostrar las principales aportaciones de la perspectiva de redes sociales para comprender la conducta de uso de drogas y su tratamiento, partiendo de la revisión de estudios desarrollados según esta aproximación. Paradigma de las redes sociales y consumo de drogas Esta aproximación abarca un conjunto de teorías, métodos y técnicas usadas para comprender las relaciones sociales y el modo en que afectan el comportamiento individual y grupal. En el campo de estudio del comportamiento adictivo, la perspectiva de la red social ha servido para examinar las relaciones que establecen los individuos con la familia, con los amigos, en la escuela y/o en el trabajo, y para evaluar la influencia de esas relaciones en la aparición y el desarrollo de la conducta de uso de drogas. Influencia de red social en la conducta de uso de drogas En varios estudios se ha señalado reiteradamente la influencia de la red social en las distintas etapas de la carrera adictiva (inicio, habituación y cese). Asimismo, se ha descrito que las redes de los usuarios de drogas presentan modificaciones importantes en cada una de estas etapas. Características de las redes sociales de los usuarios de drogas Se han realizado varios estudios para conocer cómo son las redes de los usuarios de drogas. Estos trabajos se basan en análisis comparativos de las características de las redes de personas que utilizan drogas, respecto de aquellas que no las usan. En general, se ha identificado que las redes de consumidores son diferentes a las de la población normal, pues son más pequeñas e incluyen un número mayor de miembros que usan drogas. Asimismo, se ha observado que su estructura y composición varía por tipo de droga y que es mayor el apoyo que reciben los hombres de sus redes sociales que las mujeres. Influencia de las redes sociales en el tratamiento Existen abundantes pruebas de que una red social estable, activa, sensible y con un alto nivel de apoyo ejerce un impacto positivo en la salud de sus miembros, ya que incrementa las posibilidades de recuperación de cualquier enfermedad, promueve la utilización oportuna de los servicios de salud y aumenta la sobrevida. La mayoría de los estudios sobre tratamiento han destacado la importancia del apoyo familiar y de los amigos tanto para una búsqueda oportuna de atención como para obtener resultados positivos durante y después del tratamiento. Conclusiones La investigación de las redes sociales ha producido en todo el mundo una cantidad considerable de bibliografía, que ha permitido ampliar nuestra comprensión sobre la importancia del contexto social en la génesis y el desarrollo de la conducta adictiva. Ha posibilitado, asimismo, el desarrollo de nuevos conocimientos para el avance teórico de este fenómeno al aportar un conjunto de instrumentos y técnicas de gran apoyo para los investigadores que se dedican a explicar esta problemática en contextos específicos.

Prevalencia de infección por el virus del Nilo Occidental en dos zoológicos del estado de Tabasco / Prevalence of West Nile Virus infection in animals from two state zoos Tabasco

OBJETIVO: Determinar la prevalencia de infección por el virus del Nilo Occidental (VNO) en animales, mosquitos y personal que labora en dos zoológicos del estado de Tabasco, en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Con la utilización de ELISA de bloqueo se detectaron anticuerpos en sueros de animales: se buscó un fragmento del genoma del VNO por RT-PCR en el suero de animales, empleados y mosquitos. RESULTADOS: En el zoológico "La Venta" se encontró una seroprevalencia de 25.67 por ciento (19/74) en aves y de 85.71 por ciento (6/7) en reptiles. En el zoológico "Yum-Ká", 31.25 por ciento (50/160) de las aves y 34.48 por ciento (16/29,) de los mamíferos, tuvieron anticuerpos contra el VNO. En un grupo de mosquitos (Culex quinquefasciatus) se detectó el genoma del virus. CONCLUSIONES: La detección de anticuerpos contra el VNO en animales de ambos zoológicos y del genoma viral en mosquitos demuestra la presencia del virus, lo cual representa un riesgo potencial de infección para animales y humanos.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of West Nile Virus (WNV) infection in animals, mosquitoes and employees from two zoos of Tabasco state, Mexico. MATERIAL AND METHODS: WNV antibodies were detected by blocking ELISA in serum samples from animals. Viral RNA was detected by RT-PCR from mosquitoes and serum samples from employees at "Yum-Ká" zoo. RESULTS: Seroprevalence in birds was 25.65 percent (19/74) and 85 percent (6/7) in reptiles from "La Venta" zoo. Thirty-one percent of birds (50/160) and 34.48 percent mammals (16/29) at the "Yum-Ká" zoo, were seropositive. All human serum samples from Yum-ká zoo were negative by RT-PCR. A pool of mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) was positive for WNV. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of WNV antibodies in animals from both zoos and the detection of viral genome in mosquitoes demonstrate the presence of WNV in this region and indicates a potential risk of infection in animals and humans.

Uso de drogas en la Ciudad de México: Sistema de Reporte de Información en Drogas (Srid)

Resumen: Introducción. El Sistema de Reporte de Información en Drogas (SRID) proporciona un panorama diagnóstico de los cambios ocurridos en el consumo de drogas en la Ciudad de México. Se actualiza dos veces al año (junio y noviembre), y sus resultados dan una estimación de la trayectoria del problema desde una perspectiva de salud. El SRID inició su funcionamiento en 1986 y sus resultados sirven además de fundamento para diseñar programas de prevención adecuados a la población mexicana. Objetivo. Presentar una síntesis de los resultados más relevantes del consumo de sustancias en la Ciudad de México recopilados por el SRID entre 1987 y 2005, en instituciones de salud y de justicia. Quienes se benefician de la información que se obtiene son: - Las autoridades a cargo de diseñar políticas y acciones de intervención en virtud de que el SRID funciona como un sistema de monitoreo permanente, así como de alerta temprana. - Los investigadores, dado que el SRID funciona como ventana para identificar las áreas donde es necesario mayor conocimiento desde una perspectiva de salud. - El público en general, para quien el SRID es una herramienta que describe la evolución y el estado actual de las tendencias de la farmacodependencia. Método. La información se obtiene de una cédula individual sobre consumo de drogas, que se aplica dos veces por año en 44 instituciones del sector salud y procuración de justicia. El diseño de la muestra es no probabilístico de tipo intencional. Resultados. La información analizada corresponde a 19350 casos identificados entre 1987 y 2005. Lo más destacado de las tendencias de consumo de sustancias ha sido el notable incremento de la cocaína durante el periodo evaluado. Igualmente significativa ha sido la tendencia a la baja del consumo de inhalables, que se hizo más evidente a partir de 1999. El consumo de mariguana, una de las tres drogas consumidas con más frecuencia en el país, ha mostrado cierta estabilidad al igual que el resto de las sustancias evaluadas. Conclusiones. El mayor número de usuarios de cocaína son adolescentes. Asimismo, respecto a los patrones de consumo, llama la atención que el perfil del usuario para todas las drogas estudiadas sea alto: 20 o más veces por mes, en 45% de los casos. Ambas situaciones son objeto de preocupación por los efectos físicos y emocionales de las sustancias, y porque no se observan indicadores que sugieran un decremento en el consumo.

Summary: Introduction. The Information Reporting System on Drugs (IRSD) provides diagnostic information about changes in drug use in Mexico City. This information is updated twice a year (June and November), and an estimation of the main trends of drug use is thus obtained. The IRSD was implemented in 1986, and its results offers grounds for the design of preventive programs suited for the Mexican population from a health perspective. Objetive. To present a synthesis of the most relevant results of substance use in México City compiled by the IRSD between 1987 and 2005. The following are the benefit from data obtained: - Authorities in charge of designing policies and intervention actions, by virtue of which the SRID works as a system of permanent monitoring and early warning. - Investigators, since the SRID works as a window to identify the areas where greater knowledge is necessary. From a health perspective, the public in general, for whom the SRID is a tool that describes the evolution and current state of drug tendencies. Method. The information is obtained from an individual schedule on drug use that is applied twice a year in 44 agencies of the health and law enforcement sector. The design of the sample is non probabilistic. Results. In the period 1987-2005, 19350 cases have been evaluated. The most outstanding trend in substance use has been the remarkable increase of cocaine from 1987 to 2005. Equally significant has been the decrease tendency of solvents-inhalants use, which has become more evident since 1999. Marihuana use is among the three most used drugs in the country. It shows a trend to remain stable as is the case for the other substances evaluted. Conclusions. Most cocaine users are adolescents. At the same time, 45% of the users of all the substances have a use pattern defined as "high": 20 or more times a month. Both situations are a matter of concern due to the important physical and psychological consequences of substance use. In addition, up to this moment, there is no indication suggesting that the level of use will decrease.

Individual risk factors for Plasmodium vivax infection in the residual malaria transmission focus of Oaxaca, Mexico

OBJECTIVE: To identify individual risk factors for malaria infection of inhabitants in the residual transmission focus on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A population-based, matched case-control study was conducted from January 2002 to July 2003 comparing the frequency of exposure to individual risk factors in subjects presenting clinical malaria and uninfected controls. A malaria case was defined as an individual living in the study area presenting malaria symptoms and a Plasmodium vivax-positive thick blood smear; controls were individuals negative to P. vivax parasites and antibodies of the same gender and with ± five years as the case. A standardized questionnaire was used to record information about the individual risk factors associated with malaria episodes in cases and two controls for each case. RESULTS: In a multiple conditional logistic regression model analysis of data from 119 cases and 238 controls, 18 out of 99 variables were significantly associated (p< 0.05) with increased risk of malaria, including: being born in another locality (RM 3.16, 95 percent IC 1.16-6.13); speaking only an autochthonous language (RM= 2.48, 95 percent IC 1.19-3.77); having poor knowledge about malaria (RM= 2.26 95 percent IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); the amount of vegetation around the house (RM= 20.43, 95 percent IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95 percent IC 1.21-11.80, for 60-100 percent and 30-59 percent, respectively); living in houses constructed with perishable materials (RM= 2.85, 95 percent IC 1.62-5.01); living on the periphery of the town (RM= 6.23, 95 percent IC 3.50-11.0); sleeping on a dirt floor (RM= 2.98, 95 percent IC 1.78-5.01) or with two or more people in the same bed (RM= 1.85, 95 percent CI 1.09-3.14); not using bed nets (RM= 2.39, 95 percent IC 1.18-4.83, P< 0.003) or using bed nets with holes (RM= 13.93, 95 IC 2.48-78.01); traveling outside of the village (RM= 9.16, 95 percent IC 1.98-42.2); y..

OBJETIVO: Identificar los factores de riesgo individuales determinantes para contraer paludismo en habitantes del foco residual de transmisión de paludismo localizado en la costa del Pacífico de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio pareado de casos y controles, con base poblacional de enero de 2002 a julio de 2003, comparando la frecuencia de exposición a diversos factores de riesgo individuales en sujetos que presentaron un cuadro clínico de paludismo y controles no infectados. Un caso de paludismo fue definido como un individuo que vive en el área de estudio que presentó síntomas de paludismo y diagnosticado positivo a P. vivax en examen de gota gruesa de sangre, los controles fueron individuos negativos a parásitos y anticuerpos anti-P. vivax del mismo sexo y ± cinco años la edad del caso. Se usó un cuestionario estandarizado para registrar información de factores de riesgo individuales asociados a episodios de paludismo en casos y dos controles por caso. RESULTADOS: El análisis en un modelo de regresión logística condicional múltiple, 18 de 99 variables fueron significativamente asociadas (p< 0.05) con el incremento en el riesgo de paludismo, incluyendo: nacer fuera de la localidad (RM 3.16, 95 por ciento IC 1.16-6.13); hablar sólo un idioma autóctono (RM= 2.48, 95 por ciento IC 1.19-3.77); pobre conocimiento de cómo se transmite y trata el paludismo (RM= 2.26 95 por ciento IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); cobertura de vegetación alrededor de la casa (RM= 20.43, 95 por ciento IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95 por ciento IC 1.21-11.80, para 60-100 por ciento y 30-59 por ciento, respectivamente); casas construidas con materiales perecederos (RM= 2.85, 95 por ciento IC 1.62-5.01); localización de la casa en la periferia de la localidad (RM= 6.23, 95 por ciento IC 3.50-11.0); dormir en el suelo (RM= 2.98, 95 por ciento IC 1.78-5.01); dormir con dos o más personas en la misma cama (RM= 1.85, 95 por ciento CI 1.09-3.14); not...

Uso de sustancias entre hombres y mujeres, semejanzas y diferencias. Resultados del sistema de reporte de información en drogas

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Abstract: Introduction and background Substance abuse in the world is reported higher among men than in women; nevertheless in different countries including mexico, use has increased among women during recent years. The distribution among male and female population is different according to each substance. Prevalence among both populations shows a preference for illegal drugs: mariguana, cocaine, solvent-inhalants and in a lesser degree, heroine. Meanwhile among women the mainly used substances are medical, such as sedatives and stimulants. Nevertheless in recent years there has been a higher involvement of female population in the use of illegal substances. In different countries it has been observed a high level of use among women and a trend of age of first use at earlier ages. In different countries research findings indicate a high level of use among young women that resembles the patterns of men; nevertheless among women who are older the levels of use are relatively low. At the same time there is more participation of women in delictive activities. The information reporting system on drugs (srid) of the national institute of psychiatry has evaluated the problem of drug use among men and women in the mexico city area from 1987 up to this date through a transversal study and carried out every 6 months. Results obtained, identify the most important trends of this problem and also describe its nature and evolution. Other different methodological approaches have been used to get a deeper understanding of the nature and extent of this problem. School population survey (ene) oriented to evaluate the prevalence during the autumn of 2003, among high school students, reveals that 9.6% of male students and 4.8% of females have ever used mariguana some time, 5.3% of males and 2.7% of females have ever used cocaine sometime. Women using tranquillisers constitute 5.3%, and solvent-inhalants 3.8%. The national survey on addictions (ena) carried out in 2002 among general population, reveals that substance abuse includes one woman out of every 4 men. According to this methodology 8.59% of men in general population and 2.11 of women have ever used some other drug, besides alcohol and tobacco. Mariguana (3.48%) and cocaine (1.23%) are the main used substances in the category ever used. Results of the system for epidemiological surveillance of addictions (sisvea) indicates that for year 2004 at national level 95.0% of males were in treatment due to mariguana and heroine use, followed by 93.0% of patients treated for cocaine. Female population used tranquillisers 13.8%, solvents - inhalants 7.6% and 7.0% cocaine. As it can be observed the above results support the existence of different patterns of substance use between men and women. Objective The objective of this communication is to analyze the results of the information reporting system on drugs considering similarities and differences between men and women regarding different variables associated to substance use such as sociodemographic profile, patterns of use, associated problems and trends of use. This information is a result for the second semester of 2004. Material and method Srid is a transversal study with two cross cut evaluations carried out twice a year. Information is gathered by means of a survey applied during an interview. Each evaluation gives a cross view of the problem in such moment of its history, and at present, information is available from 1987 to this date. The survey evaluates variables suggested by mexican research, experiences from other countries with information on systems for drugs already functioning, variables suggested by world health organization, and finally proposals obtained by discussion and agreement with experts of the participant health and justice agencies. The survey is applied during june and november each year and after the evaluation period, the information is compiled processed, analyzed and compiled in a report made by the national institute of psychiatry. This information is available for partici-pant agencies, state officers, and general public. Results The results from srid for november 2004 indicate that from 694 cases studied, 89% were males, 60% single and 64% of low socioeconomic level. Of the women surveyed 73.6% are single and 62.7% from low socio-economic level. The main age group for men is in the range of 30 and more years, for women it is between 15 to 19. Occupational status for men is employee and business (34.6%) and for women, student (34.7%). School level for men is high school completed (24.4%), for women it is 19.4% unfinished high school. Ever some time use of substances indicate that mariguana is employed by 70.7% males and 65.8% females. Cocaine among women and men is respectively 65% y 56.6%; solvent inhalants is 37.4% for men and 30.3% for women. Amphetamines and other stimulants report 6.6% for women and 5.5% for men; sedatives and tranquillisers reach 14.5% for women and 13.4% for men. Age of first use for men is 15 to 19 years and for women 12 to 14. Substance of first use for men is mariguana (45.3%), for women is solvent inhalants (45.0%), followed by cocaine: 19.0% for men and 10.0% for women. Problems preceding drug use regarding family are 15.9% for men, and 11.8% for women; nervous problems: 7.4% for men and 2.6% for women. Problems derived of drug use among women are those refer-ring to family interaction 57.9% and 49.4% for men; nervous problems: 30.3% and 26.5%; finally, psychological problems among women 39.5% and 23.5% each. Possible explanations for such results are the following: - Social devaluation towards women: women are subject to social pressures regarding child rising, household work, etc. This kind of work is seldom recognized and appreciated, and such situation could be a risk factor for substance use. The same is true for the pregnancy periods, because women are emotionally more vulnerable and as a result some substances are used as a tool to soothe personal, family and couple problems. - Social attitudes towards substance use are different for men and women. Substance use in the case of male population is regarded as an open, allowed and prestigious behaviour; never-theless for women it is hidden, prohibited and devaluatory. Thus for women substance use becomes a private behaviour, out of sight, denied; a sort of relief valve in face of the need to relax, feel pleasure and socialize. Substance use then becomes a "necessary" instrument to cope with tensions but at the same time excludes women of the social scene. - Among men and women the fantasy of solving everyday problems through the use of substances is frequent. This is a paradox since at the same time users perceive that problems become worse as a result of substance use. The clarification of such motivations is a matter for further research. Conclusions Further research is needed to explain the differences between patterns of substance use of men and women; this is so for motivation of onset and maintenance of substance use. Finally the information gathered by the srid has been a valuable tool as an early warning system on substance use, it is a diagnostic resource for decision and policy making as well as for intervention and treatment planning in mexico city.

Determinant factors for malaria transmission on the coast of Oaxaca State, the main residual transmission focus in Mexico / Factores determinantes de la transmisión de paludismo en la costa del estado de Oaxaca, el principal foco residual de transmisión en México

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of demographic, socioeconomic and ecological factors in malaria transmission in the most important residual transmission focus in Mexico, located in the state of Oaxaca. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The extension of the focus was determined by a spatial and time analysis of the distribution of malaria cases in the state between 1998 and 1999 using a Geographical Information System. A malaria transmission intensity index (MTII) was constructed based on the total number of cases during the study period and the duration and frequency of transmission outbreaks within the villages. The relationship between local determinants and malaria transmission intensity was investigated using multinomial and ordered logistic models. RESULTS: The distribution of villages according to their MTII was: 325 high, 341 medium, 142 low and 717 with no transmission. Localities of high MTII were associated with areas having a tropical climate with summer rains and low water evaporation. Most high MTII villages were located in elevations between 200 and 500 m above sea level, in the area around Pochutla City. The amount of temporary streams in the neighborhood of localities had a highly significant positive association with the MTII. Distance to roads was only significant in the high malaria MTII stratum. CONCLUSIONS: The main factors determining malaria transmission in the focus are related to good conditions for the breeding of mosquito vectors. The existence of short-range population movements around Pochutla, the main economically active city in the area, indicates the necessity to implement a system of epidemiological surveillance to halt the dispersion of new outbreaks.

OBJETIVO: Investigar la participación de factores demográficos, socio-económicos y ecológicos en la transmisión de la malaria en el foco de transmisión residual más importante en México, localizado en el estado de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La extensión del foco se determinó por medio de un análisis espacio-temporal de la distribución de casos de malaria en el estado entre 1998 y 1999, usando un Sistema de Información Geográfico. Un índice de intensidad de transmisión de malaria (MTII, por sus siglas en inglés) se construyó basado en el número total de casos durante el periodo del estudio y la duración y frecuencia de brotes de transmisión dentro de las localidades. La relación de determinantes locales con el MTII se investigó por medio de modelos multinomiales logísticos. RESULTADOS: La distribución de localidades según su MTII fue de 325 alto, 341 medio, 142 bajo y 717 sin transmisión. Localidades con MTII alto estuvieron asociadas a las áreas de clima tropical con lluvias en verano y evaporación baja. La mayoría de las localidades con MTII alto se localizaron a elevaciones entre 200 y 500 msnm, en el área alrededor de la ciudad de Pochutla. La cantidad de arroyos temporales en la vecindad de localidades tuvo una asociación positiva significativa con el MTII. La cercanía a carreteras de localidades con MTII alto fue significativa. CONCLUSIONES: Los factores principales que determinan la transmisión de la malaria en el foco están relacionados con las condiciones favorables para la cría de mosquitos vectores. La participación de movimientos de población de rango cortos alrededor de Pochutla, la principal ciudad económicamente activa en el área, indica la necesidad de implementar un sistema de vigilancia epidemiológica para detener la dispersión de nuevos brotes.

La importancia del apoyo social para el bienestar físico y mental de las mujeres reclusas

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Abstract: Introduction. Social support has been useful as a key axis for different approaches on how positive human relations and social networks help the individual to achieve states of relative well-being and overcome stressful events which they have to cope with in their lives. This is particularly important in the case of imprisoned women, who generally lack social support, since many of them are abandoned by their relatives and friends with the consequent impact that this has on their physical and emotional well-being. Support from family and friends during imprisonment can imply an enormous difference in the living conditions of imprisoned women. It has been proved that the social support individuals receive through their social networks is a key factor for their well-being, specially at times of stress, transition or crisis, and protects them from the emergence of physical and psychic disorders. For these reasons, the objective of this article is to identify the main sources of social support in convicted women at two penitentiary centers in Mexico City and to determine whether the presence or absence of social support has an impact on their physical and mental well-being. Method. This is a descriptive field study carried out at two women's prisons in Mexico City: The East Preventive Center for Women and the Tepepan Center of Social Readjustment for Women. The type of sampling was non-probabilistic and selected by convenience. The final sample comprised of a total of 212 women. This study included current and lifetime female abusers of alcohol, tobacco and drugs, aged between 18 and 65, who could read and write. The exclusion criteria used were having a psychiatric disorder or a physical disability that would prevent them from completing the interview. The instrument used for compiling the information was a semi-structured interview consisting of 62 pages on various areas from the lives of female prisoners. The following sections of the questionnaire were analyzed for this article: a) sociodemographic characteristics, b) social networks, c) depression, and d) perception of physical and emotional health. The procedure followed to gather information on the female prisoners began with the establishment of an agreement with the General Administration of Prevention and Social Readjustment of the Federal District. Through this agreement, the mental health team, comprising psychiatrists, psychologists and anthropologists -previously trained in the use of a structured interview-, were granted access to the correctional facility. The interviews were carried out after the women had given their informed consent and told of the objectives of the study. The interviews lasted two hours on average, although on some occasions they took up to four sessions of two hours. The field work lasted two years. Results. Socio-demographic profile: The majority of the interviewees were under 40 years old (84%). They had low schooling (with only 41% having completed elementary school), were unmarried (48.6%), and most of them did not live either with a partner or an offspring (40.5%). A total of 58.6% had left home when they were young and nearly 40% lived on the streets. Before being admitted to the institution, they had been shopkeepers (29.5%), employees (21.9%), housewives (13.8%), manual workers(7.1%) and informal workers (5.7%). Contact with relatives and friends in the past month: A high number of the women in prison reported not having received any visits during the past month, with only a small percentage receiving daily visits. Almost 60% of the women declared not receiving any visits from significant figures, such as their partners or children. Frequency of visits and perception of physical and mental health: A third of the women rated their physical and mental health as not so good. When frequency of visits was linked to the women's perception of health, it was found that women, who had not received any visits over the past month, tended to evaluate their physical health more negatively (bad-mediocre) than those who received visits (43.5% versus 38.5%). A similar percentage was observed in the evaluation of their mental health (47.8% versus 45.3%). Frequency of visits and depression: When relating the frequency of visits to the presence and/or absence of depression, it was found that women who had not received visits during the past month experienced more depressive episodes (72.7% versus 61.1%). Nevertheless, these differences were not significant. Discussion. One of the most outstanding aspects observed in this study was the high level of abandonment suffered by the inmates, which confirms findings from other studies about women being abandoned by their loved ones more often than men after commiting a crime. The study found that in terms of accessibility, the physical location of penitentiary centers, is not a factor that fully explains the abandonment suffered by these women, since most of the inmates' relatives and friends live in the same city and even in the same neighborhood where the penitentiary center is located. A high presence of present depressive episodes was also observed in female prisoners, both among those who reported receiving visits and those who did not. A possible answer here is that imprisonment itself is a highly stressful event for those undergoing it and the support received from relatives and friends is not enough to offset the effects of confinement. Conclusions. The results of this study indicate there is a certain positive association between the social support female prisoners received from relatives and friends and their physical and mental well-being. Nevertheless, this cannot be considered a causal relationship, a conclusion which agrees with other reports regarding the positive influence of social support on prisoners' well-being. However, it is also suggested that this is a complex relation that must be investigated more in depth, since this support does not necessarily has the same effect on all individuals. One of the main recommendations deriving from these results is the need to make prisoners' relatives aware of the importance of promoting and maintaining a continuous and permanent contact with them, since this type of support usually brings about an enormous benefit for their physical and emotional well-being. It is also necessary for penitentiary institutions to reconsider the suspension of visits as a means of punishment and control, since this entails a series of negative consequences for the internal population and the institution itself.

Tendencias y uso de cocaína en adolescentes y jóvenes de la ciudad de México. Sistema de reporte de información en drogas

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Abstract: Introduction and antecedents The Information Reporting System on Drugs (IRSD) provides since 1986 an updated overview of the main trends and characteristics of drug use in Mexico City. It identifies the changes in patterns of use and provides information useful to estimate its future path. It is supported by the main health and justice agencies. Up to this date, it has carried out 34 evaluations and its data base includes 16377 cases. Research on illicit drug use among adolescents and young adults started in our country during the 1970's; in those days, the level of cocaine use was low. Nevertheless, its use has been increasing gradually. Up to this date, different research reports indicate that cocaine, marihuana and solvent-inhalants are the most used illicit substances, especially among adolescents and young adults. Based on a 2003 high school survey carried out in the Distrito Federal, the latest research results indicate that marihuana is the most used substance (7.2%), followed by solvent-inhalants (4.6%), tranquilizers (4.5%) and cocaine (4.0%). Results of the most recent household survey carried out in 2002 indicate that 215,634 adolescents, between 12 and 17 years old, have ever used drugs. Excluding alcohol and tobacco, the first ever used drug in this group is marihuana, followed by solvent-inhalants and cocaine. As it can be observed, these results highlight that cocaine use is an issue and a matter of concern due to its pharmacological characteristics, psychological and social implications, and also because it affects adolescents and young adults who conform the main population group of the country. Objective This paper presents results of the Information Reporting System on Drugs, which describe the trends of cocaine use for 1987 2003 among users between 15 and 24 years old in Mexico City. It also describes the results of the evaluation carried out by the IRSD in June 2003 which include the sociodemographic characteristics of users, pattern of use, associated problems and slang words used to refer to this substance, according to the reports of the evaluated cases. Material and method Instrument. The data collection instrument was the questionnaire "Informe Individual sobre Consumo de Drogas" (Individual Report on Drug Use). It gathers information about the sociodemo-graphic characteristics of users, the most used substances, their patterns of use, the new substances being used or the substances not being used anymore, the perception of the user about the problems associated to the drug use before and after the drug use life has started, among other variables. This instrument is applied through an interview to individuals attending the participating agencies during the admission procedure. Evaluations are carried out twice a year, during June and November. The cases are obtained from all the individuals attending the participating agencies during the evaluation periods, and who identify themselves as ever having used any substance without a prescription, and with the purpose of getting intoxicated; this is the case definition. Since the beginning of the IRSD, the instrument, case definition, data processing and analysis procedures have remain similar in order to make comparisons. Until June 2003, the IRSD carried out 34 evaluations and the data base includes 16377 cases. Results Cocaine use trends: From 1987 to 2003, 9,120 cocaine cases were identified in the level "ever used". They are between 15 and 24 years old and represent 55.6% of the total population of drug users identified during such period. The use of cocaine has been increasing in this group: in 1987 there were 3.1 cocaine users out of every 100 drug users in general; in 1992, this proportion increased to 9.0%. From this date, the level of use gradually increases, reaching 74.3% in November 1998; this is the highest level recorded. From this date up to 2003, cocaine use has maintained the highest level of use of all drugs, and its level of use has remained stable. Evaluation number 34, carried out in June 2003, studied 770 cases of drug users; 533 of them reported having ever used cocaine. From this group, 293 cases (55%) are between 15 and 24 years old. Sociodemographic characteristics: 89.7% of the cocaine users were male, 58.7% were between 15 and 19 years old and 41.3% were between 20 and 24; 81.7% were single, 61.9% belonged to the middle socioeconomic level; 45.3% completed high school. Occupational status includes both employed, 31.4%, and unemployed cases, 29.5%. Pattern of use: 64% of the cocaine users started this behavior between 15 and 19 years old. 39.4% of the cocaine users are "light" users. The most frequent type of user follows a pattern of use between 1 to 5 times a month. 20.8% are "heavy" users: they use cocaine more than 20 times a month. Most used drugs, besides alcohol and tobacco, were marihuana: 60.1%; solvent-inhalants: 39.9%; and sedative-tranquilizers: 15%. Gender differences: Men and women have similar preferences regarding substance use. Nevertheless, women have higher levels of use for almost all the substances studied. Associatedproblems: The users perceive problems associated to the onset of their drug use life, and also they perceive problems once this has started. Family problems are the most frequently reported ones, increasing in frequency after drug use behavior has settled. Excluding social problems, all the other problems also increase after the onset of the drug use life. Slang words: Names used in the subculture of cocaine use to designate this substance, reported in this evaluation were: "cocaine", "crack", "piedra", "cocaína piedra", "cocaína polvo", "blanca", "bote", "coca", and "inhalada". Conclusions As it has been indicated, IRSD provides twice a year an updated diagnosis of drug use in Mexico City. Results indicate that during the period 1987-2003 cocaine use has three moments. The first one goes until 1992 and is characterized by a low level of use, below marihuana and solvent-inhalants; from there till 1998, its level reached the highest peak: 74 cocaine users out of every 100 drug users in general, with marihuana and cocaine occupying the second and third places. From this date to 2003, cocaine has remained stable in the first place. The highest risk groups are adolescents and young adults, and this is true for the onset of use as well as for the chronic use. This substance is a matter of concern due to its emotional and physical effects, but also because there are no indicators suggesting that the level of use will decrease. The problem of cocaine use indicates the need of prevention programs starting during childhood and with a long-term vision. The goal should be to promote the development of social support networks to counteract the influence of drug use in general, as well as to promote healthy lifestyles non compatible with drugs.

Evolución del consumo de cocaína en México y su presencia entre las clases menores favorecidas / Evolution of cocaine use in Mexico among the less favoured social classes

El objetivo del presente trabajo es mostrar la evolución del consumo de cocaína, y conocer el uso de esta droga en los sectores menos favorecidos de la población de la ciudad de México. Se utrilizaron los datos recopilados por el Sistema de Reporte de Información de Drogas (SRID) a lo largo de 17 evaluaciones semestrales, correspondientes al período 1987-1995, en instituciones de atención a la salud y de procuración de justicia. Las instituciones que participan en el SRID captan principalmente a la población de nivel socioeconómico bajo y medio por ser instituciones de asistencia social. Debido a ello, el nivel socioeconómico alto se encuentra sub-representado en una muestra. La muestra total recopilada por el SRID durante este periodo fue de 5566 casos de usuarios de drogas. Los usuarios de cocaína son de particular interés para el presente estudio (N = 589). Se llevó a cabo un análisis para conocer las tendencias del consumo de cocaína a lo largo del periodo de estudio, y detectar los cambios ocurridos a lo largo del tiempo. Asimismo, se analizó la relación de la variable "nivel socioeconómico" con los patrones de consumo de drogas y las características sociodemográficas de estos usuarios comparados con el resto de la muestra. Los principales hallazgos, giran alrededor del aumento de casos registrados de esta droga a lo largo del periodo de estudio. La cocaína ocupa el cuarto lugar de consumo en todas las drogas investigadas. Sin embargo, como droga de inicio ocupa el segundo lugar en los nivel socioeconómicos medio alto, y el tercer lugar en el nivel socioeconómico bajo. Las características sociodemográficas de los usuarios de cocaína a lo largo de las 17 evaluaciones no mostraron diferencias. El análisis de estos mismos datos por nivel socioeconómico, señalan que los usuarios de cocaína a lo largo de las 17 evaluaciones no mostraron diferncias. El análisis de estos mismos datos por nivel socioeconómico medio y bajo. No obstante, hay que recordar que el nivel socioeconómico alto esta subrepresentado en esta muestra, por lo que es probable que hayan variaciones respecto a este indicador en otras poblaciones

Las organizaciones inteligentes en la toma de decisiones en salud: el caso del dengue / Intelligent organizations for decision making in health: the case of dengue fever

Las Organizaciones Inteligentes (OI) son un instrumento de gran ayuda para organizar y conducir acciones de vigilancia, prevención y control. Son tecnología de punta en la administración; permiten generar esquemas del comportamiento de estructuras y políticas de organizaciones, describen sistématicamente problemas e integran modelos computalizados. Con esto se desarrollan pensamientos sistématicos; producen una visión compartida; crean modelos mentales de aprendizaje y superación continuos; se aprende en equipo; y se mejora el dominio personal. El avance científico-tecnológico ha producido una información impresionante en medicina, concomitante crecimiento de sus organizaciones y dificultad en las respuestas debido a cambios e innovaciones repentinos y constantes por ello se justifican las OI. Este trabajo está orientado a probar la utilidad de la tecnología de OI en el ordenamiento y sistematización de la información sobre los acontecimientos de las ciencias médicas. Se seleccionó el dengue para ejemplificar la aplicación de dicha tecnología porque representa un problema de crecimiento, importancia en el continente y en México, es complejo, puede evolucionar a formas de mayor gravedad en la población y es factible de analizarse en forma sistémica

Intelligent organizations (IO) represent a valuable tool to organize and guide dengue fever surveillance, prevention and control interventions. IO entail state of the art technology in managerial science to generate behavioral frameworks of organizational structures and policies. They present a systematic description of problems and construct computerized models to develop systemic thinking; they produce a shared vision and build progressive mental learning and advancement models. Also, IO promote team building and personal control skills. Scientific-technological advances have produced a wealth of information in medicine, with the corresponding growth of organizations and difficulty of responses because of sudden and incessant change. This new environment calls for the application of IO know-how. This article is oriented to prove the usefulness of the IO technology in the ordering and systematization of the reports about the medical sciences facts. Dengue was chosen to exemplify the use of IO technology as it represents an increasing health problem in America, as well as in Mexico; it is so complex that it can evolve to a more serious problem, besides it can be analized within a systemic method.

Estudio seroepidemiológico del paludismo en Puerto Madero, Chiapas, 1985 / Seroepidemiologic study of malaria in Puerto Madero, Chiapas, 1985

La Escuela de Salud Pública de México y el Centro de Investigación en Paludismo en Tapachula, Chiapas, montaron y estandarizaron por primera vez en México la prueba serodiagnóstica "inmunofluorescencia indirecta de anticuerpos" (IFA) como un instrumento más para la vigilancia epidemiológica del paludismo, que constituy un problema prioritario de salud pública nacional. El estudio de la morbilidad palúdica que se presenta qui, está basado en una muestra poblacional representativa de Puerto Madero, Chiapas, cuyas endemicidad se determinó a través de una encuesta domiciliaria y de la toma de sangre para las pruebas parasitoscópica directa e inmunofluorescencia. También se identificaron entre los serorreactores los infectados y posibles portadores asintomáticos; asimismo, se analizaron algunos factores locales de riesgo

Evaluación de un esquema alternativo de tratamiento para el control del paludismo / Evaluation of an alternative scheme of treatment for malaria control

El estudio presenta una evaluación de la efectividad de la distribución colectiva de drogas antipalúdicas en una región predominantemente agrícola de la costa del estado de Chiapas, cercana a la frontera con Guatemala, que en 1979 y 1980 presentó una incidencia de paludismo de 2,848 y 3,648 casos, respectivamente. En esta área la enfermedad es ocasionada principalmente por Plasmodium vivax, aunque Plasmodum falciparum representa 22% del total. El principal vector es el Anopheles albimanus, resistente a una amplia gama de insecticidas. Dada esta situación que obliga a considerar alternativas más efectivas para el control de la enfermedad, un grupode investigadores de la Dirección de Lucha contra el Paludismo y de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud hicieron este estudio evaluativo sobre los resultados de tres dosis de cloroquina y primaquina que se intentaba dar a la mayoría de los habitantes de sesenta localidades con alta endemicidad y con una población de 18,700 habitantes. La comparación se basó en los cambios observados en el patrón de la incidencia para la zona y en el seguimiento de 54 personas diagnosticadas com paludismo durante la primera fase del trtamiento, a quienes se les hicieron exámenes de gota gruesa y cuestionamineto directo. Entre 7 y 10 meses, de los54 casos 10 fueron diagnosticados parasitoscópicamente, 35 fueron negativos y 9 casos fueron perdidos del seguimiento. Se encontró que la tasa de incidencia fue menor que en los años anteriores, mientras que se mantuvo relativamente constante en las comunidades no tratadas. Por esta razones, los autores sugieren que esta forma de tratamiento puede ser un medio efectivo para el control del paludismo en las áreas endémicas de México; aunque es necesario hacer otros estudios evaluativos para contrastar estos resultados