Determinación de factores de riesgo a reacciones adversas a medicamentos mediante farmacovigilancia intensiva en UCI / Risk factors for adverse drug reactions in patients admitted to intensive care units

Background: Patients hospitalized in intensive care units (ICU) are at higher risk of having adverse drug reactions (ADR). Aim: To determine risk factors for ADR, through intensive pharmacological surveillance at the ICU. Patients and Methods: An observational, descriptive and prospective study was made, determining risk parameters in patients who experienced ADR. Results: Eighty-five patients were surveilled and 24 (28%) had an ADR. A total of 48 drugs responsible for at least one ADR were identified. Seventy-three percent ADR were moderate and 27% were severe. The clinical variables significantly associated with ADR were a history of allergies, a high body mass index, the reason for admission, an APACHE II score ≥ 14 points, the use of invasive mechanical ventilation and more than seven days of hospitalization. The pharmacological variables associated with ADR were polypharmacy and medication associations and combinations. Conclusions: The identified risk factors have a great impact on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters, and should be considered to avoid the appearance of ADR.

Ácido úrico: una molécula con acciones paradójicas en la insuficiencia cardiaca / The role of uric acid in heart failure

Complications and mortality of heart failure are high, despite the availability of several forms of treatment. Uric acid, the end product of purine metabolism would actively participate in the pathophysiology of heart failure. However, there is no consensus about its action in cardiovascular disease. Serum uric acid would have a protective antioxidant activity. This action could help to reduce or counteract the processes that cause or appear as a result of heart failure. However, these protective properties would vanish in the intracellular environment or in highly hydrophobic areas such as atherosclerotic plaques and adipose tissue. This review discusses the paradoxical action of uric acid in the pathophysiology of heart failure.

Metabolismo energético del corazón y sus proyecciones en el tratamiento de la insuficiencia cardíaca / Heart energy metabolism and its role in the treatment of heart failure

It is unknown why heart failure progresses even when patients are treated with the best therapy available. Evidences suggest that heart failure progression is due to loss of neurohumoral blockade in advanced stages of the disease and to alterations in myocardial metabolism induced, in part, by this neurohumoral activation. Alterations in cardiac energy metabolism, especially those related to substrate utilization and insulin resistance, reduce the efficiency of energy production, causing a heart energy reserve deficit. These events play a basic role in heart failure progression. Therefore, modulation of cardiac metabolism has arisen as a promissory therapy in the treatment of heart failure. This review describes myocardial energy metabolism, evaluates the role of impaired energy metabolism in heart failure progression and describes new therapies for heart failure involving metabolic intervention.

Interacción entre los polimorfismos del receptor ß1 y ß2 adrenérgico como predictor de riesgo de insuficiencia cardiaca crónica / Interactions between ß1 and ß2 adrenergic receptor polymorphisms as risk factors for chronic heart failure

Background: ß adrenergic receptors (AR) are highly polymorphic and important regulators of cardiovascular homeostasis. Among these, ß1 and ß2 AR regulate cardiac contractility and frequency and are important pharmacological targets. Aim: To evaluate genotype and gene-gene interaction between ß1-AR Arg389Gly and ß2-AR ArglSGly GlnZ7Gly and Thrl 64Ile polymorphisms, as risk factors for HF. Material and methods: Eighty chronic HF patients and eighty-eight controls matched by age and sex were genotyped for ß1 -AR Arg389Gly ß2-AR ArgWGly, GlnZ7Glu and Thr164Ile polymorphisms. Results: The presence of ß2-AR Glu afiele was a risk predictor for HF (odds ratio (OR) =2.81; 95 percent confidence intervals (CI) =1.49-5.31). Interactions that increased the risk for HF were found in patients carrying at least one of the ß2-AR Glu and ß2-AR Gly allele (OR =3.81; 95 percent CI =1.50-0.70) and ß2-AR Glu and ß1 -AR Gly allele combination (OR =5.51; 95 percent CI =2.19-13.86). Furthermore, the frequency of ß2-AR Glu allele was higher among patients with a history ofacute myocardial infarction (with infarction: 0.534, without: 0.313, p =0.01). Conclusions: ß2-AR Glu allele could be a risk predictor for HF. This risk could be enhanced by the additional presence of ß2-AR GlyW or ß1-AR Arg389 alleles. The frequency of ß2-AR Gln27 Glu allele was higher among patients with a history of myocardial infarction.

Marcadores de inflamación endotelial subclínica en una familia con hiperaldosteronismo familiar tipo I por mutación de novo / Subclinical endothelial inflammation markers in a family with type I familial hyperaldosteronism caused by a de novo mutation

Background: Type I familial hyperaldosteronism is caused by the presence of a chimaetic gene CYPl 1B1/CYP11BZ which encodes an enzyme with aldosterone synthetase activityregulated by adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). Therefore, in patients with FH I is possible to normalize the aldosterone levels with glucocorticoid treatment. Recently it has been shown that aldosterone plays a role in the production of endothelial oxidative stress and subclinical inflammation. Aim: To evaluate subclinical endothelial inflammation markers, Me Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and ultrasensitive C reactive protein (usPCR), before and after glucocorticoid treatment in family members with FH-I caused by a de novo mutation. Patients and methods: We report three subjects with FH-I in a single family (proband, father and sister). We confirmed the presence of a chimaeric CYPl 1B1/CYP11B2 gene by ¡ong-PCR in all of them. Paternal grandparents were unaffected by the mutation. The proband was a 13year-old boy with hypertension stage 2 (in agree to The JointNational Committee VII, JNC-vIl), with an aldosterone/plasma rennin activity ratio equal to 161. A DNA paternity test confirmed the parental relationship between the grandparents and father with the index case. MMP-9 and usPCR levels were determined by gelatin zymography and nephelometry, respectively. Results: All affected subjects had approximately a 50 percent increase in MMP-9 levels. Only the father had an elevated usPCR. The endothelial inflammation markers returned to normal range after glucocorticoid treatment. Conclusions: We report a family canying a FH-I caused by a de novo mutation. The elevation of endothelial inflammation markers in these patients and its normalization after glucocorticoid treatment provides new insight about the possible deleterious effect of aldosterone on the endothelium.

Inflamación y disfunción endotelial en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica / Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure

Background: In chronic heart failure (CHF), endothelial dysfunction (ED) is a consequence of an imbalance of vascular tone regulating substances. The relationship between ED and inflammation has not been fully investigated. Aim: To assess the association between inflammation and ED in CHF. Material and methods: Forty two patients aged 56±14 years (80 percent male) with a CHF in functional capacity II-III (New York Heart Association) and an ejection fraction (FE) <40 percent were consecutively studied. Patients were classified according to the presence or absence of ED, evaluated by reactive vasodilation measured by ultrasound, after brachial artery compression. Circulating levels of highly sensitive C reactive protein (usCRP), tumor necrosis factor a (TNFá) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were determined by ELISA. A group of 15 healthy subjects of similar age, were studied as controls. Results: Sixty seven percent of patients had ED. Compared to controls, patients with CHF had higher usCRP (0.58±0.4 and 4.9±7.1 mg/dl respectively, p <0.01) and IL-6 (1.38±0.06 and 3.1±1.7 mg/dl respectively, p <0.01). Compared to patients without ED, patients with CHF and ED had higher levéis of usCRP (3.0±0.4 and 6.0±5.7 mg/dl respectively, p <0.01) and TNFá (0.31±0.26 and 1.0±1.1 pg/ml, p =0.02). No differences in IL-6 were found between CHF groups. Conclusions: In CHF patients, the presence of ED was associated with increased levéis of inflammatory markers.

Estrés oxidativo e inflamación en insuficiencia cardiaca: Mecanismos de daño y alternativas terapéuticas / Oxidative stress and inflammation in heart failure: Mechanisms of damage and therapeutic alternatives

Despite advances in treatment, chronic heart failure still is associated with a poor prognosis and remains a leading cause of cardiovascular death. Cumulating evidence suggests that imbalances in redox state lead to a higher generation of reactive oxygen species. This phenomenon, along with pro-inflammatory cytokine activation and extra cellular matrix alterations with reactive fibrosis, play an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of heart failure, through the development of endothelial and myocardial dysfunction. The understanding of the underlying phenomena and the metabolic pathways involved will allow further development of therapies aiming to change the natural history of heart failure.

Polimorfismos de los receptores -β adrenérgicos y su relación con el riesgo de insuficiencia cardiaca, etiología y prevalencia de infarto al miocardio / Polymorphysm of beta-adrenergic receptors and risk of heart failure, etiology and prevalence of myocardial infarction

Introducción: Los polimorfismos de los receptores ß-adrenérgicos (AR) influencian el grado de actividad del receptor. Los ßAR tienen un rol importante en la regulación de la contractilidad y podrían tener implicancias en el riesgo de desarrollar insuficiencia cardiaca (IC), como en su pronóstico y respuesta terapéutica. Objetivo: Evaluar los genotipos e interacciones genéticas entre los polimorfismos del ß1 y ßAR como predictores de riesgo de desarrollar IC, su relación con la etiología de la IC y prevalencia de infarto. Métodos: Se genotipificaron 80 pacientes con IC y 88 sujetos sanos por edad y sexo. Los pacientes con IC tenían FE<35 por ciento y CF II-IV de la NYHA. Los polimorfismos se determinaron amplificando por la Reacción de Polimerización en Cadena (PCR) los genes de los ßAR y analiz¨¢ndolos con enzimas de restricción (PCR-RFLP). Los datos se analizaron mediante los tests estadísticos c2, Fisher, regresión loguística y razón de disparidad. Los datos se ajustaron por edad y sexo. Las interacciones entre los polimorfismos ß1AR Arg389 →Gly, ß2Ar Gln27 →Glu y ß2AR Thr 164 →lle se evaluaron en función del riesgo a desarrollar ICC. Resultados: Las frecuencias de los genotipos ß2AR Gln27→Glu y 1 AR Arg389→Gly fueron diferentes en los sujetos con IC comparados con los controles. La presencia del ß2AR Glu27Glu pero no de la variante 1 AR Gly389Gly fue predictor de ICC (OR ajustado=2,81; Cl=1,49 a 5,31 para el 2AR Glu27Glu; p=0,001 y OR ajustado=0,58; Cl=0,13 a 2,53; p=0,466 para b1AR Gly389Gly). Se encontró una interacción entre los polimorfismos ß1AR Arg389Arg y los polimorfismos del ß2AR Arg16Arg, Gln27Gln, y Thr164Thr. Estas interacciones se asociaron a una reducción en el riesgo de IC (OR=0,25, Cl=0,09 a 0,69; p=0,009; OR=0,18, Cl=0,07 a 0,46, p<0,001 y OR=0,48, Cl=0,25 a 0,91, p=0,026, respectivamente). Además, en los pacientes con IC, la frecuencia del polimorfismo 2AR Glu27Glu se asoció con una mayor incidencia de infarto al miocardio (con infarto: 0,534, sin = 0,313, p=0,01). Conclusiones: La variante Glu27Glu del ß2AR fue un predictor de IC, los polimorfismos del ß2AR Arg16Arg, Gln27Gln, y Thr164Thr y 1AR Arg389Arg se asociaron a una disminución del riesgo de ICC. El genotipo y frecuencia del alelo ß2AR Gln27 ----- Glu se relacionó a la etiología de la ICC y con la prevalencia de infarto al miocardio. Estos hallazgos pueden ser relevantes en la predicción de riesgo de ICC, su pronóstico y respuesta terapéutica.