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ABSTRACT Choroidal tuberculomas are present in patients with ocular tuberculosis. They usually occur in a patient with previous history of tuberculosis, and are rarely the initial presentation, with no prior systemic manifestations. We present a patient with unilateral choroidal tuberculoma as the initial presentation of presumed ocular tuberculosis, which enabled earlier initiation of treatment.
RESUMO Os tuberculomas de coroide apresentam-se em pacientes com tuberculose ocular. Geralmente, ocorrem em indivíduos com história prévia de tuberculose e raramente têm apresentação inicial sem manifestações sistêmicas anteriores. Relatamos o caso de um paciente com tuberculoma de coroide unilateral com apresentação inicial de tuberculose ocular presumida, permitindo o início mais precoce do tratamento.
Subject(s)
Humans , Female , Adult , Tuberculoma/diagnosis , Choroid Diseases/diagnosis , Tuberculoma/drug therapy , Fluorescein Angiography , Choroid Diseases/drug therapy , Uveitis, Posterior/diagnosis , Tuberculosis, Ocular , Choroid/diagnostic imaging , Fundus Oculi , Antitubercular Agents/therapeutic useABSTRACT
Abstract Sclerochoroidal calcifications (SC) are a rare and benign ocular condition characterized by yellow-white irregular subretinal lesions usually found in the supero-temporal arcade of the midperipheral fundus in middle-aged elderly men. We present a clinical case of a 79- year-old patient who during a fundus examination presented raised whitish nodules in the supero-temporal arcade in the right eye. After performing optical coherence tomography, ultrasound, ocular computed tomography and laboratory analysis, she was diagnosed with idiopathic sclerochoroidal calcifications The pathogenesis of sclerochoroidal calcifications remains unclear but systemic conditions should be discarded. It is important to distinguish sclerochoroidal calcifications from other conditions such as tumors.
Resumo Calcificações esclerocoroidais (SC) são uma condição ocular rara e benigna caracterizada por lesões sub-retinianas irregulares amarelo-brancas, geralmente encontradas na arcada superotemporal do fundo médio-periférico em homens idosos de meia-idade. Apresentamos um caso clínico de uma paciente de 79 anos que durante exame de fundo apresentou nódulos esbranquiçados elevados na arcada superotemporal do olho direito. Após realizar tomografia de coerência óptica, ultra-sonografia, tomografia computadorizada ocular e análise laboratorial, ela foi diagnosticada com calcificações esclerocoroidais idiopáticas A patogênese das calcificações esclerocoroidais permanece incerta, mas as condições sistêmicas devem ser descartadas. É importante distinguir calcificações esclerocoroidais de outras condições, como tumores.
Subject(s)
Humans , Female , Aged , Calcinosis/diagnostic imaging , Scleral Diseases/diagnostic imaging , Choroid Diseases/diagnostic imaging , Tomography, X-Ray Computed/methods , Ultrasonography/methods , Clinical Laboratory Techniques/methods , Tomography, Optical Coherence/methods , Diagnosis, Differential , Metabolic DiseasesABSTRACT
OCT angiography (OCTA) is a fast,noninvasive and quantifiable new technique,which is especially suitable for long-term follow-up in patients with hereditary retinochoroidal degeneration,such as retinitis pigmentosa,Best vitelliform macular dystrophy,adult onset foveomacular vitelliform dystrophy,doyne honeycomb retinal dystrophy,choroideremia and Stargardt disease.During the follow-up,clinicians can find the subtle signs that explain disease development from the blood flow imaging,quantitatively describe the vascular density,timely detect and treat choroidal neovascularization.It is significant to explore the etiology and monitor the course of these diseases.With the development of more treatments for these diseases,OCTA parameters can also be used as indicators to evaluate and compare different therapeutic effects.In the future,more quantitative indicators of OCTA will be applied to evaluate the course of hereditary retinochoroidal degeneration,and provide valuable basis for early diagnosis and treatment.
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With the rapid development of ophthalmic imaging methods,there are many ways of examination in the diagnosis and treatment of fundus diseases,such as FFA,ICGA,FAF,OCT and emerging blood vessels by OCT angiography in recent years.Multi-model image can understand the changes of anatomical structure and function of different levels and parts of the fundus from different aspects.A variety of imaging examinations are combined and complemented each other,which makes us have a further understanding of the location and pathological changes of many fundus diseases.But at the same time,the emergence of multi-modal images also brings a series of problems.How to standardize the use of multi-modal imaging platform to better serve the clinic is a problem that ophthalmologists need to understand.
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Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a new diagnostic technique in recent years based on the optical coherence tomography.It is one of the fastest developing imaging examinations in ophthalmology.Compared with the classic diagnostic methods of fundus fluorescein angiography and indocyanine green angiography,OCTA show the ability to reveal blood flow non-invasively.With the development of modem medical detection technology,the requirement for ophthalmic diagnosis is raised,and many new measurement methods begin to apply in research and clinical,which makes the detection methods in the field of ophthalmology more accurate and comfortable.OCTA is a novel and noninvasive flow imaging technique,and it has the advantages of high resolution,fast scanning,as w ell as quantifying blood flow.Meanwhile,this technique can not only qualitatively analyze the shape of ocular blood vessels,but also be able to measure the ocular blood vessels and blood flow non-invasively,as well as to assess the depth of lesions.At present,with a wide clinical application in ophthalmology,OCTA still has its own superiority and weakness,but with the development of technology.It is believed that the OCTA will be expected to replace the relevant invasive examination methods and become a new tool for ophthalmic imaging.
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Choroidal nevus is one of the most common benign melanocytic tumor.The prevalence rate of choroidal nevi is 0.15％-10.00％,which is high among whites and low among colored people,and is obvious higher in male than that in female.Secondary changes in the surrounding retina of the benign tumor,such as subretinal fluid and choroidal neovascularization,may result in vision loss.This benign tumor carries risks for transformation into malignant melanoma.The factors predictive of transformation into melanoma included greater thickness,subretinal fluid,visual symptoms,orange lipofuscin pigment,tumor location (tumor margin near optic disc),ultrasonography hollowness and absence of halo.Early identification of the related features which impair visual acuity is important for early treatment and better prognosis,and it is especially important to monitor the tendency of malignant transformation.Optical coherence tomography (OCT) could provide detailed information which aid in diagnosing,differentiating and monitoring of choroidal nevi.OCT and optical coherence tomography angiography are emerging as excellent techniques to investigate choroidal melanocytic lesions.The treatment modalities,such as laser photocoagulation,photodynamic therapy and intravitreal anti-vascular endothelium growth factor,have been proved to be effective for choroidal nevi with secondary changes.In the future,the relevant researches should be imposed to provide more detailed information in order to explore the nature and characteristics of this disease.
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Ultra-wide field fundus autofluorescence (FAF) imaging is a new noninvasive technique with an imaging range of about 200 °. It can detect peripheral retinal lesions that cannot be found in previous FAFs and more objectively reflect intracellular content and distribution of lipofuscin in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and RPE cell metabolic status. The ultra-wide field FAF can find the abnormal autofluorescence (AF) in the peripheral retina of the eyes of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and different AF manifestations may have an impact on the diagnosis and treatment of the different AMD subtypes. It is helpful to evaluate subretinal fluid in the eyes of central serous choroidal retinopathy and can accurately detect the changes in the outer retina of the eyes without subretinal fluid. It can help to determine the type of uveitis and fully display the evolution of the disease. It can also assess the peripheral photoreceptor cell layer and RPE in patients with retinal dystrophy and retinitis pigmentosa, and comprehensively evaluate their retinal function and monitor the progress of disease. It can also assist in the evaluation of the short-term efficacy and RPE cell function after the scleral buckling surgery for patients with rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. In the future, ultra-wide field FAF may change the knowledge and intervention strategy of ocular fundus diseases and promote the clinical and scientific research in this field.
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Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a new and noninvasive imaging technique that generates real-time blood flow pattern on chorioretinal vasculature. In order to apply this novel technology in the practice to diagnose and treat ocular fundus diseases, we need to further strengthen the quality of OCTA image acquisition and reporting specifications. We need to understand its technical principle, and multiple factors affecting the OCTA image acquisition and interpretation. Furthermore, In the process of image acquisition, as well as analysis and interpretation, we need to pay attention to the stratification, interpretation of blood flow signals and identification of artifacts of OCTA images.
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Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) is a fundus disease characterized by choroidal anomalous branch vascular network and terminal polypoidal dilatation.According to its fundus feature,lesion location,imaging feature and disease progression,PCV can be divided into different types or stages.It can be divided into hemorrhage and exudation PCV according to the fundus features,into macular,peripapillary,periphery and mixed types according to the lesion locations.It can also be divided into type 1 and 2 according to the ICGA (indocyanine green angiography) manifestations,and can be classified as early stage and late stage according to disease progression.There were different correlations between different types of PCV and some risk genetic loci,such as ARMS2 (age-related macular degeneration factor 2)/HTRA1 (high temperature essential protein A1),C2,complement factor B,complement factor H,and elastin genes.The response to therapy and prognosis are also different between different types.It is important to further study the clinical classification of PCV,to explore the genetic characteristics,influencing factors and treatment or prognosis features of different types of PCV.The results will improve the differential diagnosis of PCV,and the effectiveness of individualized treatment.
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Peripapillary intrachoroidal cavitation (PICC) is a common pathological change observed in high myopia. The exact pathogenesis of PICC is still unclear. Expansion and mechanical stretching of the peripapillary sclera, breakage and defect in the retina near the border of the myopic conus and communication between intrachoroidal cavity and the vitreous space may be important segments during the development of PICC. Color fundus photography shows a localized and well-circumscribed peripapillary lesion with yellow-orange colour, often accompanied by fundus changes, such as myopic conus excavation, optic disc tilting and inferotemporal retinal vein bending at the transition from the PICC to the myopic conus. However, the PICC lesion is not easy to be recognized in the fundus photography. Fluorescein angiography shows early hypofluorescence and later progressively staining in the lesion. Indocyanine green angiography shows hypofluorescence throughout the examination. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is vital in diagnosing PICC. Hyporeflective cavities inside the choroid, sometimes communicating with the vitreous chamber, can be observed in OCT images. OCT angiography indicates lower vessel density or even absence of choriocapillary network inside or around PICC lesions.
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Peripapillary intrachoroidal cavitation (PICC) is a common pathological change observed in high myopia. The exact pathogenesis of PICC is still unclear. Expansion and mechanical stretching of the peripapillary sclera, breakage and defect in the retina near the border of the myopic conus and communication between intrachoroidal cavity and the vitreous space may be important segments during the development of PICC. Color fundus photography shows a localized and well-circumscribed peripapillary lesion with yellow-orange colour, often accompanied by fundus changes, such as myopic conus excavation, optic disc tilting and inferotemporal retinal vein bending at the transition from the PICC to the myopic conus. However, the PICC lesion is not easy to be recognized in the fundus photography. Fluorescein angiography shows early hypofluorescence and later progressively staining in the lesion. Indocyanine green angiography shows hypofluorescence throughout the examination. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is vital in diagnosing PICC. Hyporeflective cavities inside the choroid, sometimes communicating with the vitreous chamber, can be observed in OCT images. OCT angiography indicates lower vessel density or even absence of choriocapillary network inside or around PICC lesions.
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Objective To observe the clinical features, phenotypes and genotypes in a Chinese family with choroideremia (CHM). Methods A Chinese four-generation family (15 members) with CHM, including 5 patients (4 males/1 female), 2 female carriers and 8 healthy members, was enrolled in this study. Initially all family members underwent best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), indirect ophthalmoscopy, fundus fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography (OCT), visual field and full view electroretinogram (ERG). BCVA was followed up for 3 years. Venous blood samples were collected, and all of the 15 coding exons and flanking intron regions were amplified in the proband by polymerase chain reaction followed by direct sequencing. Protein structure was modeled based on the protein data bank and mutations in DeepView v4.0.1 to predict the effect of the mutations. A total of 180 healthy volunteers were enrolled as control group to matching CHM gene sequences. Results The visual acuity (VA) of 3/4 adult male patients began to decrease at less than 10, 10 and 30 years old, the average BCVA was 0.43. There were characteristic signs and symptoms of CHM including narrow visual field, extinguished rod and cone response in ERG, disappeared junction line and intermediate line of photoreceptor inner segment/outer segment on OCT. After 3 years, the mean BCVA decreased to 0.11. The BCVA of one young male patient was 1.0 in both eyes with minor changes fundus and visual field. The VA of the female patient began to decrease at 50 years old, her BCVA of two eyes were 0.5 and 0.25, respectively. The fundus changes were typical of CHM, with relative scotomas in the peripheral visual field of OD, and big scotomas in the OS. After 3 years, her mean BCVA decreased to 0.2. Of 2 female carriers, one had minor fundus changes (patches of pigmentary deposits, atrophy spots of retinal pigment epithelium cells), and the other was normal. A novel heterozygous c.1837G>A mutation in exon 15 of CHM was detected in the proband, which resulted in the substitution of serine by proline at codon 613 (p.D613N). Based on molecular modeling, the misfolded protein caused by the mutation might destabilize the structure of the helix that potentially could affect the global stability of the Rep-1 protein. Conclusions A novel c.1837G>A (p.D613N) mutation may be the causative mutation for CHM in this family. Female CHM carriers may have some signs and symptoms.
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Optic coherence tomography (OCT) is one of the most rapid developing technologies in ophthalmology. OCT angiography (OCTA) has been made possible by the development of even faster scanning and sampling techniques, which is the next milestone after stratus OCT and spectral domain OCT. Without the need of injection of the contrast agent, OCTA is capable of providing a three-dimensional reconstruction of the perfused microvasculature within the retina and choroid by detecting the motion of scattering particles such as erythrocytes within sequential OCT cross-sectional scans performed repeatedly at the same location of the eye with different analysis algorithms. Comparing to fundus fluorescein angiography and indocyanine green angiography, with improved OCT technology and understanding, OCTA has showed certain advantages to diagnose retinal and choroidal diseases, especially macular vascular diseases. It is important to establish the contributions that OCTA can make to diagnosing, managing and understanding of ocular fundus diseases.
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ABSTRACT Purpose: To investigate subfoveal choroidal thickness (SFCT) in patients with pre-eclampsia using enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography (EDI-OCT). Methods: A sample of 73 pregnant women was studied over 28 weeks of gestation. The sample was divided into two groups: one comprising pre-eclamptic pregnant women (n=32), and the other comprising healthy pregnant women (n=41). The SFCT was determined for all patients using EDI-OCT during pregnancy and at the third month of the postpartum period. Results: The SFCTs in pre-eclamptic pregnant women were 351.97 ± 22.44 and 332.28 ± 20.32 µm during the pregnancy and postpartum periods (p<0.001), respectively, whereas these values in healthy pregnant women were 389.73 ± 49.64 and 329.78 ± 22.36 µm (p<0.001), respectively. During pregnancy SFCT in pre-eclamptic pregnant women was significantly thinner than that in healthy pregnant women (p<0.001). However, there was no statistically significant difference during the postpartum period (p=0.623). Conclusions: The results suggest that SFCT is significantly decreased in pre-eclamptic pregnant women than in healthy pregnant women, despite no statistically significant difference in SFCT existing between the groups during the postpartum period.
RESUMO Objetivo: Investigar espessura subfoveal coroidal (SFCT) em pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia usando imagens de tomografia de coerência óptica de profundidade otimizada (EDI-OCT). Método: Uma amostra de 73 mulheres grávidas foi estudado ao longo de 28 semanas de gestação. A amostra foi dividida em dois grupos: um com mulheres grávidas com pré-eclâmpsia (n=32), o outro com as mulheres grávidas saudáveis (n=41). SFCT foi determinada em todos os pacientes utilizando EDI-OCT durante a gravidez e no terceiro mês do período pós-parto. Resultados: Os SFCTs em gestantes com pré-eclâmpsia foram 351,97 ± 22,44 µm e 332,28 ± 20,32 µm durante o período de gravidez e pós-parto (p<0,001), respectivamente. Estes valores em mulheres grávidas saudáveis foram 389,73 ± 49,64 µm e 329,78 ± 22,36 µm (p<0,001), respectivamente. Durante a gravidez o SFCT foi significantemente mais fino em mulheres com pré-eclâmpsia quando comparado com as mulheres saudáveis (p<0,001). No entanto, não houve diferença estatisticamente significante no período pós-parto (p=0,623). Conclusões: Os resultados sugerem que SFCT é significativamente mais fino em gestantes com pré-eclâmpsia do que nas mulheres grávidas saudáveis, apesar de não haver diferença estatisticamente significativa na SFCT entre os grupos durante o período pós-parto.
Subject(s)
Humans , Female , Adolescent , Adult , Young Adult , Pre-Eclampsia/pathology , Choroid/pathology , Postpartum Period/physiology , Fovea Centralis/physiopathology , Fovea Centralis/pathology , Organ Size , Pre-Eclampsia/physiopathology , Reference Values , Time Factors , Pregnancy/physiology , Case-Control Studies , Cross-Sectional Studies , Choroid/physiopathology , Gestational Age , Statistics, Nonparametric , Tomography, Optical Coherence/methods , Axial Length, Eye , Intraocular PressureABSTRACT
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a new and non-invasive imaging technique that is able to detect blood flow signal in the retina and the choroid within seconds.OCTA is different from the traditional angiography methods.The major advantages of OCTA are that it can observe blood flow signal in different layers of the retina and the choroid without injecting any dye,provide blood flow information that traditional angiography cannot provide,and enrich pathophysiological knowledge of the retinal and choroidal vascular diseases.,which help us to make an accurate diagnosis and efficient evaluation of these diseases.However there is a large upgrade potential either on OCTA technique itself or on clinical application of OCTA.We need to fully understand the advantage and disadvantage,and differences of OCTA and traditional angiography.We also need to know how to interpret the result of OCTA.With that we could make a fast diagnosis in a non-invasive way and improve our knowledge of the retinal and choroidal vascular diseases.
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Objective To cpmpare the assessment of retinal and choroidal disease using confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope (cSLO) imaging and color fundus camera.Methods Sixty-seven patients (90 eyes) with fundus diseases were included in this study.There were 35 males (51 eyes) and 32 female (39 eyes),mean age was 51.32 years.All subjects underwent fundus imaging using cSLO technology and traditional color fundus camera,positive numbers of every retinal pathological change were calculated and compared.Spectral domain-optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) was also done to compare the accordance rate between two modes of fundus imaging (cSLO technology and traditional color fundus camera) and SD-OCT in choroidal changes.Results The positive numbers of retinal microaneurysm (x2 =4.157,P＜ 0.05) and epiretinal membrane (x2 =5.428,P ＜ 0.05) using cSLO fundus imaging were significantly higher than traditional color fundus camera,while the positive numbers of cotton wool spots (x2 =0.523),retinal hemorrhage (x2 =0.117),hard exudates (x2 =0.325) and macular hole (x2 =0.070)were no significant different (P＞ 0.05).The SD-OCT accordance rate of choroidal pathological changes using cSLO technology was higher than traditional color fundus camera (x2 =9.143,P=0.007).Conclusion In retinal and choroidal diseases,the imaging quality of cSLO fundus imaging technology is better than the traditional color fundus camera technology.
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Objective To observe the imaging features of branching vascular network (BVN) in polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV).Methods Eighty PCV patients (90 eyes) were enrolled in this study.The patients included 58 males and 22 females.The age was ranged from 49 to 85 years,with a mean age of 61.4 years.All the patients were examined for fundus photography,fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA),indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) and optical coherence tomography (OCT).The fibrovascular retinal pigment epithelium detachment (PED) was defined as a well-demarcated subretinal heterogeneous plaque with increasing fluorescence on FFA.The late lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque was defined as a well-demarcated lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque on late phase ICGA.The double-layer sign on OCT was defined as a wide range of shallow PED from Bruch membrane.Results BVN were found on early ICGA in 76 eyes among the 90 eyes (84.4％).Among these 76 eyes,18 eyes (23.7％) demonstrated the subretinal reddish-orange branches corresponding to BVN.Fifty-six eyes (73.7％) demonstrated all or part of the BVN on early FFA.Three eyes (3.9％) demonstrated branching transmitted fluorescence corresponding to BVN throughout the FFA.Seventy-three eyes (96.1％) were manifested by occult choroidal vascularization on FFA,and 21 eyes (27.6％) of them were fibrovascular PED.Among the 76 eyes with BVN,all BVN appeared earlier than polypoidal lesions on ICGA.Polypoidal lesions located on the terminal of BVN in 62 eyes (81.6％).Sixty-nine eyes (90.8％) on ICGA demonstrated the late lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque,whose area was equal to or greater than the area of BVN shown on early ICGA.Seventy-two eyes (94.7％) had the double layer sign.Among these 72 eyes,15 eyes (20.8％) had lumen like structure within the double-layer sign.Sixty-five eyes (90.3％) had punctate and linear hyperreflectance within the double-layer sign.Two eyes (2.8％) demonstrated a hyporeflective short segment and a gap of Bruch membrane on OCT corresponding to the origin of the BVN.Sixty-three eyes (87.5％) had an area of double-layer sign that matched the area of late lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque on ICGA.Conclusions BVN in PCV can be noted as reddish-orange branches on fundus examination.Most of the BVN are shown as early branching transmitted fluorescence but collectively an occult choroidal vascularization on FFA,as lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque on late ICGA,and as double-layer sign on OCT whose area matches late lichenoid hyperfluorescent plaque.
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The pathogenesis of polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) is still controversial.More evidence of clinical and basic research is needed to distinguish PCV from an independent disease to a subtype of age-related macular degeneration.Not only that,there are also many puzzles in the diagnosis,treatment options and prognosis of PCV.In addition to these common problems,we also face a large population with risk factors,a large number of PCV patients with multiple and complex challenges in China.There is a long way to go to reduce the damage effects of PCV on visual function.To fulfil this goal,we need make full use of the huge resources of PCV patients and turn these challenges into opportunities,and contribute the improvement of diagnosis and better understanding of PCV pathogenesis.
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Objective To observe ophthalmoscopic image characteristics of central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC).Methods Twenty-one eyes of the 18 patients diagnosed with CSC were enrolled in this study.The patients included 12 males (14 eyes) and six females (seven eyes).The patients ages ranged from 26 to 47 years,with a mean age of (39.1±5.4) years.There were nine patients (11 eyes) with acute CSC,seven patients (seven eyes) with chronic CSC,and two patients (three eyes) with recurrent CSC.All the patients were examined using color fundus photography including infrared (IR),autofluorescence (AF),near infrared ray-auto-fluorescence (NIR-AF),fluorescein angiography (FA) and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) photography.The ophthalmoscopic image characteristics of CSC were comparared.Results The circular serous retinal detachments of 21 eyes were depicted in color images of the ocular fundus,which in the IR showed the hypo-fluorescence.Ten eyes displayed mottled hyperfluorescent spots associated with serous retinal detachments corresponding to the leakage points.The serous retinal detachments of 15 eyes in the AF images showed hypo-fluorescence,six eyes showed hyperfluorescence.Fourteen eyes presented with hypo-or hyper-fluorescent spots corresponding to the leakage points,seven eyes presented without abnormal fluorescence corresponding to the leakage points.In addition,three eyes with acute CSC showed many scattered hyper-fluorescent spots,which showed hypo-fluorescence in the ICGA.The serous retinal detachment of 15 eyes exhibited hypo-fluorescence in the NIR-AF images,six eyes showed hyper-fluorescence.Fourteen eyes presented with hypo-or hyper-fluorescent spots corresponding to the leakage points,seven eyes presented without abnormal fluorescence corresponding to the leakage points.Twenty-one eyes in FA identified the leakage.Eight eyes showed regional choroidal delayed filling,13 eyes exhibited regional choriocapillary dilatation during 1 5 minutes after injection of ICGA.During 1-5 minutes after injection of ICGA,six eyes showed more lesions than FA,three eyes showed obvious patchy hypo-fluorescence whereas the FA were normal.Conclusions CSC has its own characteristic fundus images in the IR,FA and NIR-A.FA is still the photographic method of choice,but ICGA can reveal lesions of the choroid in CSC.IR,FA and NIR-AF are not as good as FA and ICGA for detecting of leakage points.
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The improvement of diagnostic levels for fundus diseases depend on the advancements of fundus imaging technology.Different fundus imaging technologies allow doctors to inspect ocular fundus from different aspects such as morphological or functional changes of retina.As a basic fundus examination method,optical coherence tomography provides high-resolution and cross-sectional retinal images coupled with non-invasive advantages.Fully understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of each fundus imaging technique,appropriate choosing one or combining several imaging techniques,and optimizing diagnostic procedures for each fundus disease are crucial steps to improve our diagnostic.levels of ocular fundus diseases.