Benign multiple sclerosis: aspects of cognition and neuroimaging / A esclerose múltipla benigna: aspectos cognitivos e de neuroimagem

ABSTRACT The existence of a benign multiple sclerosis (BMS) form is a controversial subject. Recent studies of these patients reveal different levels of cognitive impairment, despite the apparent preservation of motor function. The objective of this study was to review and analyze a number of publications that discuss the general aspects of this disease form, such as the definition criteria, prevalence, and clinical and neuroimaging markers. A systematic review of published data on BMS up to October 2015 was performed. Thirty-one published articles were analyzed. The estimated frequency of BMS varied between 6% and 73%. Cognitive impairment was recognized as affecting 17% to 47% of the subjects and presented significant correlation with neuroimaging, such as brain atrophy, increased lesion volume in T2 magnetic resonance assay, and regional grey matter atrophy. The current criteria overestimated the frequency of BMS and, for that reason, this highlights the importance of validating the diagnostic methods practiced.

RESUMO A existência real de uma forma benigna da esclerose múltipla (EMB) é um tema controverso. Ampliar o número de publicações que abordam os aspectos gerais do subtipo da doença, tais como os critérios de definição utilizados, análise de prevalência e da presença de marcadores clínicos e de neuroimagem. Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática dos dados publicados até outubro de 2015, relativa à EMB. Os dados encontrados foram dicotomizados em gráficos e, posteriormente, analisados. Foram analisados 31 artigos publicados. A frequência estimada EMB oscila entre 6% a 73%. O comprometimento cognitivo foi reconhecido em 17–47% dos sujeitos, apresentando correlação significativa com os aspectos de neuroimagem, como a atrofia cerebral global, aumento do volume lesional em T2 e atrofia regional da substância cinzenta. Os critérios atualmente utilizados superestimam a freqüência de EMB, e, por essa razão, destaca-se a importância da validação dos métodos de diagnóstico praticados.

Cambio en el patrón de consumo de sustancias posterior a cirugía bariátrica: presentación de un caso clínico / Changes in the pattern of substance use after bariatric surgery: report of one case

Even though the benefits of bariatric surgery are supported by scientific evidence, its indications and contraindications must be revised to avoid its indiscriminate use. Substance use is more common in patients subjected to bariatric surgery than in the general population. After surgery, an increase in alcohol abuse has been reported. We report a 41 years old male, with morbid obesity, alcohol and cocaine use. After bariatric surgery, his alcohol tolerance significantly decreased, increasing the doses of cocaine and starting to consume it without alcohol. His high anxiety level and paranoid delusions, motivated him to seek help in a rehabilitation center where a Substance Dependence Disorder was diagnosed and received initial treatment. The cause of this adverse effect needs further research. Functional and anatomic changes in the digestive tract lead to a greater alcohol absorption and reduced alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Also neurochemical alterations may produce a displacement from compulsive use of food to compulsive use of addictive substances.

Neurobiological effect of 7-nitroindazole, a neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, in experimental paradigm of Alzheimer’s disease.

Nitric oxide plays a role in a series of neurobiological functions, underlying behaviour and memory. The functional role of nNOS derived nitric oxide in cognitive functions is elusive. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of specific neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, 7-nitroindazole, against intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced cognitive impairment in rats. Learning and memory behaviour was assessed using Morris water maze and elevated plus maze. 7-nitroindazole (25 mg/kg, ip) was administered as prophylactically (30 min before intracerebroventricular streptozotocin injection on day 1) and therapeutically (30 min before the assessment of memory by Morris water maze on day 15). Intracerebroventricular streptozotocin produced significant cognitive deficits coupled with alterations in biochemical indices.These behavioural and biochemical changes were significantly prevented by prophylactic treatment of 7-nitroindazole. However, therapeutic intervention of 7-nitroindazole did not show any significant reversal. The results suggests that 7-nitroindazole can be effective in the protection of dementiainduced by intracerebroventricular streptozotocin only when given prophylactically but not therapeutically.

Aspectos cognitivos en la depresión / Cognitive Aspects of Depression

La depresión mayor (DM) es una de las afecciones más frecuentes en salud mental, esperándose un incremento de esta para el año 2020 (WHO). Se ha efectuado una revisión de los estudios recientes existentes acerca de las alteraciones cognitivas en pacientes con depresión mayor, concluyéndose en varios estudios, incluido un metanálisis, que los pacientes con DM tienen alteraciones en las funciones ejecutivas, comparados con sujetos sanos. Este hecho se ha observado tanto en pacientes con reiterados episodios de depresión mayor como en aquellos con el primer episodio. Esta alteración cognitiva puede llevar a dificultades en el rendimiento laboral, escolar, social, etc. Por ello, surge la necesidad de profundizar el estudio de este aspecto poco analizado de la depresión, así como capacitar a los profesionales de la salud en su detección y reconocimiento precoz, ya que podría constituir un síntoma trazador de la evolución de la enfermedad depresiva

Major depression (MD) is one of the most frequent diseases of mental health; this disorder is expected to increase by 2020 (WHO). The author does a revision of recent existing studies on cognitive alterations in patients with major depression, many of which, including a meta-analysis, conclude that such patients display alterations in their execuive functions, as compared with healthy subjects. This has been observed both in patients with repeated episodes of major depression, as well as in patients with a first episode. This congnitive alteration may lead to difficulties in work, school, social, etc. performance. Therefore, it becomes necessary to delve into the study of this poorly analyzed aspect of depression, and train health care professionals in its prompt detection and identification, since it might be a revealing symptom of the progression of the depressive disorder

Aterosclerosis y afectación de la función cognitiva / Atherosclerosis and cognitive function impairment

La aterosclerosis es un proceso de origen multicausal y se acompaña de una gran variedad de manifestaciones clínicas y humorales. Son conocidos los factores de riesgo aterogénicos como dislipidemias, hipertensión arterial, diabetes mellitus, obesidad, tabaquismo, aumento de homocisteína y otros. La aterosclerosis lleva a la cardiopatía isquémica, enfermedad cerebro-vascular, enfermedad renal crónica, enfermedad arterial periférica y aneurismas ateroscleróticos. Es bien conocido que, por estar estrechamente ligada con la sangre y el oxígeno que necesitan todas las células del organismo, deja su huella en casi todos los órganos y tejidos del organismo, produciendo afectación en el sistema nervioso central y por lo tanto, en la esfera cognitiva. Los factores de riesgo ateroscleróticos que pueden afectar la función cognitiva principalmente son: hipertensión arterial, diabetes mellitus, dislipidemia, obesidad, síndrome metabólico, envejecimiento, aumento de la homocisteína sanguínea, aumento del fibrinógeno y tabaquismo. Se hace una revisión actualizada del tema, el cual consideramos de gran interés, para tener en cuenta en la asistencia médica diaria

Atherosclerosis is a process of multicausal origin which is accompanied by a great variety of clinical and humoral manifestations. Atherogenic risk factors are well known. They include dyslipidemias, arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking, increased homocysteine, and others. Atherosclerosis leads to ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic renal disease, peripheral arterial disease and atherosclerotic aneurysms. As is well known, due to its close relation to the blood and the oxygen required by all cells in the body, the disease leaves an imprint in practically all organs and tissues, affecting the central nervous system and consequently the cognitive sphere as well. The atherosclerotic risk factors that may affect cognitive function are in the first place arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, obesity, metabolic syndrome, aging, increased blood homocysteine, increased fibrinogen and smoking. An updated review is conducted on the topic, which we consider to be of great interest. The review may be of use in daily medical practice

Cerebellar volume in patients with dementia / Volume cerebelar em pacientes com demência

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the cerebellar volume of subjects at different stages of Alzheimer's disease and to investigate whether volume reductions in this structure are related to cognitive decline. METHOD: Ninety-six subjects from an epidemiological study were submitted to a magnetic resonance imaging scan and evaluated using the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Functional Activities Questionnaire. Subjects were divided into five groups according to the Clinical Dementia Rating scale. Twenty-six subjects from the original group who had no dementia diagnosis at baseline were re-evaluated for the onset of dementia after two years. RESULTS: The volumes of the cerebellar hemispheres, posterior cerebellar lobe, vermis and temporal lobe were found to be reduced as a function of the severity of the disease. There were significant positive correlations between the volume of the temporal lobe and cerebellum and the language, attention, and total scores in the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Functional Activities Questionnaire. A logistic regression analysis demonstrated that reduced temporal lobe, posterior cerebellar lobe and vermal volume at baseline is a risk factor for the onset of dementia. CONCLUSION: This is the first study demonstrating that reduced cerebellar volume is already apparent at the predementia stage. The results of this study support the involvement of the cerebellum in the progression of dementia. Whereas the cerebellum might not be directly associated with the origin of Alzheimer's disease, it may provide useful information related to its prognosis.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar o volume cerebelar em indivíduos em diferentes fases da doença de Alzheimer e investigar se sua redução estaria relacionada com o declínio cognitivo. MÉTODO: Noventa e seis indivíduos de um estudo epidemiológico foram submetidos à ressonância magnética e avaliados por meio do Mini Exame do Estado Mental e do Questionário de Atividades Funcionais. Os sujeitos foram divididos em cinco grupos de acordo com a Escala de Gravidade da Demência. Vinte e seis indivíduos do grupo original que não tinham o diagnóstico de demência no início do estudo foram reavaliados após dois anos para detectar o desenvolvimento da doença. RESULTADOS: Os volumes dos hemisférios cerebelares, lobo cerebelar posterior, vermis e lobo temporal estavam diminuídos proporcionalmente à gravidade da doença. Houve correlações positivas e significativas entre o Questionário de Atividades Funcionais, Mini Exame do Estado Mental e seus respectivos subtestes para linguagem e atenção com os volumes dos lobos temporal e cerebelar. A análise de regressão logística demonstrou que o volume reduzido do lobo temporal, lobo cerebelar posterior e vermis pode ser um fator de risco para o futuro desenvolvimento de demência. CONCLUSÃO: Este é o primeiro estudo que demonstrou que o volume do cerebelo pode estar reduzido na fase pré-demência e reforça o papel dessa estrutura na progressão da doença de Alzheimer. Considerando que o cerebelo pode não estar diretamente associado com a origem da doença de Alzheimer, este achado tem valor para o prognóstico.

Cognitive and neuroimaging profile of a Brazilian family with CADASIL / Perfil cognitivo e neuroimagem de uma família Brasileira com CADASIL

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is an inherited small vessel disease leading to small infarcts and subcortical vascular dementia. This study presents results from the neuropsychological and neuroimaging evaluation of functionally autonomous individuals of a Brazilian family with CADASIL. The causal mutation was confirmed in four family members. Seven individuals from two generations were evaluated using the CERAD battery and additional neuropsychological tests and were submitted (6 individuals) to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain with specific protocols for white matter lesion quantification. Apraxic changes and fast progression over nine months (neuropsychological reevaluation of 6 individuals) were found in many individuals. The MRI study suggests greater involvement of frontal lobes in more severely affected individuals. Even functionally independent individuals may exhibit significant neuropsychological and neuroimaging changes. Apraxia, little commented on in literature, and rapidly progressive cognitive changes were found in this group.

Arteriopatia cerebral autossômica dominante com infartos subcorticais e leucoencefalopatia (CADASIL) é uma doença hereditária de pequenos vasos levando a pequenos infartos e demência vascular subcortical. Este estudo apresenta resultados da avaliação neuropsicológica e de neuroimagem de indivíduos funcionalmente autônomos de uma família brasileira com CADASIL. Sete indivíduos de duas gerações foram avaliados através da bateria CERAD e testes neuropsicológicos adicionais e seis foram submetidos a ressonância magnética (RM) do encéfalo com protocolos específicos para a quantificação de lesão em substância branca. Alterações apráxicas e rápida progressão ao longo de nove meses foram encontradas em vários indivíduos. O estudo de RM sugeriu maior envolvimento dos lobos frontais em indivíduos mais severamente afetados. A mutação causal foi confirmada em quatro membros da família. Mesmo indivíduos funcionalmente independentes podem apresentar significativas alterações neuropsicológicas e de neuroimagem. Apraxia, menos comentada na literatura, e alterações cognitivas rapidamente progressivas foram encontradas neste grupo.

The modified 2VO ischemia protocol causes cognitive impairment similar to that induced by the standard method, but with a better survival rate

Permanent bilateral occlusion of the common carotid arteries (2VO) in the rat has been established as a valid experimental model to investigate the effects of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion on cognitive function and neurodegenerative processes. Our aim was to compare the cognitive and morphological outcomes following the standard 2VO procedure, in which there is concomitant artery ligation, with those of a modified protocol, with a 1-week interval between artery occlusions to avoid an abrupt reduction of cerebral blood flow, as assessed by animal performance in the water maze and damage extension to the hippocampus and striatum. Male Wistar rats (N = 47) aged 3 months were subjected to chronic hypoperfusion by permanent bilateral ligation of the common carotid arteries using either the standard or the modified protocol, with the right carotid being the first to be occluded. Three months after the surgical procedure, rat performance in the water maze was assessed to investigate long-term effects on spatial learning and memory and their brains were processed in order to estimate hippocampal volume and striatal area. Both groups of hypoperfused rats showed deficits in reference (F(8,172) = 7.0951, P < 0.00001) and working spatial memory [2nd (F(2,44) = 7.6884, P < 0.001), 3rd (F(2,44) = 21.481, P < 0.00001) and 4th trials (F(2,44) = 28.620, P < 0.0001)]; however, no evidence of tissue atrophy was found in the brain structures studied. Despite similar behavioral and morphological outcomes, the rats submitted to the modified protocol showed a significant increase in survival rate, during the 3 months of the experiment (P < 0.02).

Fisiopatología de los eventos psiquiátricos asociados al uso de interferón alfa / Pathophysiology of psychiatric events associated with alpha-interferon use

El uso de interferón para el tratamiento de la hepatitis C crónica activa, el melanoma y el carcinoma renal trajo aparejada la necesidad de asistir de modo adecuado los eventos adversos neuropsiquiátricos.Se han reportado con frecuencia eventos adversos psiquiátricos con el uso de interferón alfa, que pueden ocurrir al inicio del tratamiento o más tarde, como resultado de la continuidad del mismo.Los más comunes son: ánimo depresivo, anhedonia, ansiedad, irritabilidad, ideación suicida. También fatiga, insomnio, anorexia, dolor, enlentecimiento psicomotor y trastornos cognitivos.Estos síntomas limitan la adhesión al tratamiento y a veces precipitan su discontinuación, por lo cual está indicado el uso de antidepresivos, especialmente de los Inhibidores de la Recaptación de Serotonina, y de otros psicofármacos cuando se presenta hipomanía o psicosis. El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una revisión de la fisiopatología de los eventos adversos psiquiátricos del tratamiento con interferón alfa, y de los diversos mecanismos que se han propuesto para explicarlos.Nuestra revisión incluye por su especial interés, el tema de la inmunomodulación producida a partir de la activación de la “vía de las kinureninas” por las citoquinas proinflamatorias, su importancia en las patologías autoinmunes y neurodegenerativas, y en la investigación de futuros blancos terapéuticos.

The use of interferon for the treatment of chronic active hepatitis, melanoma and renal cell carcinoma resulted in the need to adquately assist the neuropsychiatric adverse events. Psychiatric adverse events have been frequently reported with the use of interferon alpha, which can occur at the beginning of treatment or later, as a result of continuity. The most common are: depressed mood, anhedonia, anxiety, irritability, suicidal ideation. Also fatigue, insomnia, anorexia, pain, psychomotor retardation and cognitive disorders. These symptoms limit treatment adherence and sometimes precipitate its discontinuation, which is indicated by the use of antidepressants, especially inhibitors of serotonin reuptake, and the other psychotropic drugs when there is hypomania or psychosis. The aim of this paper is to review the pathophysiology of psychiatric adverse events of treatment with interferon alpha, and various mechanisms have been proposed to explain. Due to its special interest, our review includes the issue of Immunomodulation produced from the activation of the "way of kinureninas" by proinflammatory cytokines, its importance in autoimmune and neurodegenerative pathologies, and the research of therapeutic targets in future.

Caracterización de síntomas neuropsiquiátricos en pacientes con DCL de tipo amnésico en una población colombiana / Characterization of neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with amnestic-type MCI in a Colombian population

Introducción: el deterioro cognitivo leve (DCL) se caracteriza por la alteración de uno o varios procesos cognitivos sin afectación significativa en las actividades de la vida diaria del paciente y que puede presentarse acompañado de síntomas neuropsiquiátricos, lo que incrementa el riesgo a evolucionar a demencia. Objetivo: identificar la frecuencia y severidad de las alteraciones comportamentales en una población con deterioro cognitivo leve de tipo amnésico. (DCL-A)Procedimiento: estudio no experimental, transversal de alcance descriptivo, que contó con 70 personas, con diagnostico de DCL-A. Seleccionada la muestra los cuidadores respondieron el inventario neuropsiquiátrico. Resultados: el 65.7 por ciento de los participantes presentaron síntomas comportamentales, donde la irritabilidad fue la mas frecuente (32.9 por ciento), seguido por depresión (30 por ciento) y agitación (25.7 por ciento). La apatía fue el síntoma que se presenta con mayor severidad sin ser el más frecuente. Discusión: dentro del cuadro clínico propio del DCL-A se reportan síntomas neuropsiquiátricos que acompañan el déficit cognitivo. En la población estudiada el 65.7 por ciento presentaba dichos síntomas, dato que se aproxima a lo encontrado en la literatura; sin embargo el síntoma más frecuente fue la irritabilidad, no la depresión como se ha reportado en otros estudios; los síntomas menos frecuentes fueron conductas eufóricas y conductas motoras aberrantes.

Introduction: Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is characterized by the alteration of one or more cognitive processes without significant impairment in the activities of patient’s daily life and may be accompanied by neuropsychiatric symptoms, which increase the risk to develop dementia. Objective: To identify the frequency and severity of behavioral alterations in a population with mild cognitive impairment amnesiac type (MCI-A) Procedure: non experimental study, with a cross-sectional descriptive scope, attended by 70 people with diagnosis of MCI-A.Selected sample of caregivers responded neuropsychiatric inventory. Results: 65.7 percent of participants had behavioral symptoms, where irritability was the most frequent (32.9 percent), followed by depression (30 percent) and agitation (25.7 percent). Apathy was the symptom presented with most severity but not the most frequent. Discussion: Neuropsychiatric symptoms that accompany cognitive deficits are reported in clinical features of MCI-A. In the population studied, 65.7 percent had such symptoms, data that approximates those found in literature. Nonetheless, the most common symptom was irritability and not depression, as has been reported in other studies; euphoric and aberrant motor behaviors were theless frequent symptoms.

Atrofia cortical posterior / Posterior cortical atrophy. Report of five cases

Posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) is a neurodegenerative syndrome, usually due to Alzheimer's disease. The first symptoms are progressive impairment of visuo spatial (Balint's and Gertsmann's syndromes) or visuo perceptive (visual agnosia, alexia) function. Episodic memory and executive function are spared until later stages. We report two males aged 51 and 55years and three females aged 50, 54 and 56 years, with posterior cortical atrophy. Ophthalmologic study was normal in all. Presenting signs and symptoms were visual ataxia, simultagnosia, agraphia, acalculia, spatial disorientation and unilateral neglect (Balint's and Gerstmann's syndromes). Apperceptive visual agnosia, aphasia, apraxia and alexia were also observed. One female had cortical blindness. Structural images were inconclusive, but PET scan and SPECT disclosed functional impairments in occipitotemporal or occipitoparietal areas.

Abnormal Integrity of Corticocortical Tracts in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has been defined as a transitional state between normal aging and Alzheimer disease. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) can estimate the microstructural integrity of white matter tracts in MCI. We evaluated the microstructural changes in the white matter of MCI patients with DTI. We recruited 11 patients with MCI who met the working criteria of MCI and 11 elderly normal controls. The mean diffusivity (MD) and fractional anisotropy (FA) were measured in 26 regions of the brain with the regions of interest (ROIs) method. In the MCI patients, FA values were significantly decreased in the hippocampus, the posterior limb of the internal capsule, the splenium of corpus callosum, and in the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculus compared to the control group. MD values were significantly increased in the hippocampus, the anterior and posterior limbs of the internal capsules, the splenium of the corpus callosum, the right frontal lobe, and in the superior and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus. Microstructural changes of several corticocortical tracts associated with cognition were identified in patients with MCI. FA and MD values of DTI may be used as novel biomarkers for the evaluation of neurodegenerative disorders.

Deterioro cognitivo leve: encuesta sobre actitudes de médicos especialistas y generalistas / Mild cognitive impairment: survey of attitudes of specialists and general physicians

El deterioro cognitivo leve es una entidad caracterizada por el compromiso predominante de la memoria en ausencia de trastorno funcional. Ha sido asociado a un período predemencial de la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Sin embargo, se considera que otras áreas cognitivas pueden verse afectadas, pudiendo implicar también otras etiologías. Así, algunos profesionales lo consideran un término etiológico, dirigido hacia la enfermedad de Alzheimer y otros un complejo sindromático, incluyendo varias enfermedades. Otro factor agregado que generó confusión ha sido el porcentaje de conversión a demencia. El objetivo de nuestro trabajo fue evaluar la opinión médica sobre el deterioro cognitivo leve y los problemas que genera en la práctica diaria. Se adaptó el cuestionario sobre deterioro cognitivo leve de Dubois y col, 2003; 24 médicos expertos en demencia de Argentina y Brasil (16 neurólogos y 8 psiquiatras) y 30 médicos generalistas aceptaron responder al mismo. Los resultados muestran que el 92% de los médicos expertos piensa que es una entidad heterogénea, no la limitan a un estadio predemencia de la enfermedad de Alzheimer; y el 63% refieren que puede empeorar. El 83% de los expertos inician tratamiento específico utilizando preferentemente anticolinesterásicos, memantine y vitamina E. La vasta mayoría de médicos considera al deterioro cognitivo leve como una entidad sindromática, que no está limitada a la enfermedad de Alzheimer; pero sin embargo, inicia tratamiento con drogas dirigidas hacia ella. La ambigüedad existente hace necesario estandarizar definiciones y reconceptualizar la enfermedad de Alzheimer en su estadio pre-demencia.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) refers to persons who are slightly cognitively impaired for age but do not meet the criteria for dementia. MCI has been related to a pre-dementia stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, other possible diagnoses such as cerebro-vascular disease, frontotemporal dementia or normal aging have been considered. Diagnosis, etiology and conversion to dementia are a source of ambiguity in MCI. The aim was to evaluate the opinion of experts on dementia and of general practitioners concerning MCI. A total of 24 experts from Argentina and Brazil (16 neurologists and 8 psychiatrists) and 30 general practitioners agreed to reply to a questionnaire on MCI (adapted from Dubois inventory, 2003). Of these, 92% of experts considered MCI as an ambiguous entity, not necessarily as a "pre-dementia" stage; 63% confirmed a tendency to worsen over the time and 83% of experts decided to initiate treatment using cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine and vitamin E. The opinion on MCI was that a priori it is not only an Alzheimer disease pre-dementia stage, but most of them consider the treatment against AD. MCI is a heterogeneous entity that should be classified as an open category and making it necessary to standardize definitions and design diagnosis guides to better understand Alzheimer disease pre-dementia stage.

Delirium e demência no idoso: existem fatores de risco comuns? / Delirium and dementia in the elderly: are there common risk factors?

Delirium é uma síndrome neurocomportamental decorrente da quebra transitória da homeostase cerebral. Deve-se, invariavelmente, a perturbações sistêmicas ou do sistema nervoso central. No contexto médico geral, a ocorrência de delirium está associada à maior incidência de complicações clínico-cirúrgicas, maior tempo de permanência hospitalar e pior recuperação funcional. O envelhecimento e o comprometimento cognitivo são fatores de risco conhecidos para o delirium. Em pacientes idosos, a ocorrência aumenta o reconhecimento de quadros demenciais preexistentes. Em contrapartida, indivíduos idosos não-demenciados que desenvolvem um episódio de delirium durante uma dada internação hospitalar têm incidência aumentada de demência na evolução em longo prazo. Estudos prospectivos e controlados demonstraram uma associação significativa entre o diagnóstico prévio de delirium e o ulterior desenvolvimento de síndromes demenciais. Essa associação parece ser ainda maior em indivíduos muito idosos. O presente estudo de revisão aborda criticamente a natureza da associação entre delirium e demência. Hipotetiza-se que a sua ocorrência em indivíduos idosos cognitivamente preservados é fator preditivo de deterioração cognitiva, e de risco aumentado para o desenvolvimento de demência, no seguimento de longo termo. As bases neurobiológicas da associação entre delirium e demência são discutidas à luz da hipótese colinérgica da doença de Alzheimer, uma vez que o comprometimento da neurotransmissão colinérgica é denominador comum a essas duas perturbações neuropsíquicas.

Onda p300: Normas para su uso en afecciones neuropsiquicas / Wave p 300: Standars for its use in newsuropsychic affections

En este trabajo, luego de hacer una breve reflexión acerca de la Onda P 300, como potencial evocado medidor de trastornos neurocognitivos, se procedió a realizar una descripción de los principales indicadores de latencia, amplitud, conteo de estímulos infrecuentes, a una muestra de 200 sujetos sanos, mediante la aplicación de un paradigma cognitivo diseñado en el programa computarizado MIND TRACER, con el propósito de obtener el rango de valores normales, para poder comparar con muestras posteriores de sujetos enfermos, y de esta manera establecer las posibles afectaciones a nivel cognitivo que estos presenten

Neuropsicologia do envelhecimento cognitivo normal e patológico e sua relação com a deficiência mental / Neuropsychology of normal cognitive aging mental and pathologic and her relation with mental deficiency

A compreensão do envelhecimento cognitivo em portadores de deficiência mental (DM) é um desafio a enfrentar, pois os modelos de envelhecimento cognitivo normal e patológico atualmente estudados, nos permitirão identificar as semelhanças e diferenças entre estas populações, o que servirá de base na adaptação de nossos instrumentos e procedimentos diagnósticos a fim de detectar mudanças cognitivas que existem nos estágios pré-clínicos do envelhecimento cognitivo patológico nesta população

Diffusion MRI studies in vascular cognitive impairment and dementia

Since its introduction more than two decades ago, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has not only allowed for visualization of the macrostructure of the CNS, but also has been able to study dynamic processes which constitute the substrate of currently available MRI variants. While conventional Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI) permits a robust visualization of lesions just a few minutes after the onset of cerebral ischemia, Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) measures the magnitude and direction of diffusion, leading to the characterization of cerebral white matter (WM) microstructural integrity. In this paper, the potential role of MRI techniques, particularly DTI, for the study of the relationship between changes in the microstructural integrity of WM and cognitive impairment in the context of cerebrovascular disease are discussed. Significant correlations between scores of behavioral measures of cognitive function and regional anisotropy values are an example of the potential efficacy of DTI for in vivo studies of brain connectivity in vascular neurodegenerative conditions

Disfunción cortical difusa en pacientes con la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia human (VIH) / Diffuse cortical dysfunction in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection

Los objetivos del presente trabajo fueron estimar la ocurrencia de disfunción neurocognitica y establecer el valor clínico de los reflejos primitivos y controles infectados con el VIH, Mediante un examen neurológico estandarizado que incluyó la evaluación del estado mental examinamos a enfermos seropositivos sintomáticos (n=30) y a 30 controles seronegativos. El 45 por ciento de los casos mostró deterioro cognitivo. La frecuencia de hallazgos neurológicos entre los seropositivos fue similar. La mediana de los reflejos primitivos fue mayor en el grupo de casos asintomáticos (p=0.001). El modelo predictivo que combino síntomas cognitivos y reflejos primitivos fue mayor en el grupo de casos sintomáticos (p=0.001). El modelo predictivo que combinó síntomas y reflejos primitivos tuvo una precisión de 89 por ciento para discriminar entre los 3 grupos. Al ajustar el efecto confundente de las convariables empleadas, los reflejos positivos por sí solos tuvieron una precisión de 83 por ciento (p=0.00013). La precisión aumentó a 97 por ciento luego de excluir los controles seronegativos (p<0.00005). Concluimos que los síntomas neurocognitivos y los reflejos primitivos sugieren el diagnóstico de desorden neurocognitivo asociado al VIH en pacientes con la infección por el VIH-1, en especial aquellos en las categorias A3, B y C