Surveying Colombian Speech-Language Pathologists on their Reported Training & Practices of Auditory-Perceptual Evaluation of Voice

Objective: To explore the training and use of auditory perceptual evaluation of the voice reported by Colombian speech-language pathologists. Study Design: Cross-sectional observational research with a quantitative approach. Methods: A digital questionnaire was designed and distributed to gather information regarding professionals' training process and implementation of auditory-perceptual evaluation procedures. Descriptive statistics were applied, and several generalized linear models were adjusted to determine the influence of certain variables on others. Results: The survey received responses from 40 speech-language pathologists, revealing that the most used scales for training and evaluating vocal quality within this group are direct magnitude estimations (82.5% and 77.5%). Similarly, in this group, the tasks most frequently used to train and use as an evaluation strategy are vowel assessments (38%) followed by spontaneous speech (30%). Practitioners of this group were mostly trained using a conceptual framework involving multiple exposures to rating (42.5%). The use of direct magnitude estimation in training with a normal voice showed significance (p = 0.015), as did the use of the vowel /i/ in training with an equal-appearing interval (p = 0.013). The statistical models relating the scale used to the scale on which participants were trained were also significant (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The GRBAS scale is the training tool most used by the group of speech-language pathologists of the study group in Colombia. Future efforts should focus on improving training practices for auditory-perceptual evaluation, exploring alternative conceptual frameworks, and incorporating external references to enhance validity and reliability.

Objetivo: Explorar los reportes de fonoaudiólogos colombianos acerca del entrenamiento y uso de la evaluación perceptual auditiva de la voz. Diseño de estudio: Se eligió un diseño de investigación observacional transversal con un enfoque cuantitativo. Metodología: Se diseñó y distribuyó un cuestionario digital para recopilar información sobre el proceso de formación de los profesionales y la implementación de procedimientos de evaluación perceptual auditiva. Se aplicaron estadísticas descriptivas y se ajustaron varios modelos lineales generalizados para determinar la influencia de ciertas variables en otras. Resultados: La encuesta recibió respuestas de 40 fonoaudiólogos, revelando que las escalas más utilizadas para la formación y la evaluación de la calidad vocal en el grupo son las estimaciones de magnitud directa (82.5% y 77.5%). Del mismo modo, en este grupo las tareas más frecuentemente utilizadas para la formación y el uso como estrategia de evaluación son las vocales (38%), seguidas por el habla espontánea (30%). La mayoría de los profesionales del grupo fueron formados utilizando un marco conceptual que involucra múltiples exposiciones a la calificación (42.5%). El uso de la estimación de magnitud directa en la formación con una voz normal mostró significancia (p = 0.015), al igual que el uso de la vocal /i/ en la formación con intervalos de igual apariencia (p = 0.013). Los modelos estadísticos que relacionan la escala utilizada con la escala en la que los participantes fueron entrenados también fueron significativos (p < 0.05). Conclusiones: La escala GRBAS es la herramienta de formación más utilizada por el grupo de fonoaudiólogos del estudio. Los esfuerzos futuros deberían centrarse en mejorar las prácticas de formación para la evaluación perceptual auditiva, explorar marcos conceptuales alternativos e incorporar referencias externas para mejorar la validez y la confiabilidad.

Understanding Clinical Competence: Understanding Student Assessment

The extent, purpose, and model of performance assessment should be guided by our understanding of clinical competence. We have come a long way from believing that competence is generic, fixed, and transferable across contents; to viewing competence as dynamic, incremental, contextual, and non-transferable. However, our pattern of assessment largely remains what it was many years ago. Contemporary educationists view competency assessment as different from traditional format. They place more emphasis on the role of expert subjective judgment, especially for performance and domain-independent competencies. Such assessments have conclusively shown their validity, reliability, and utility. They; however, require trained assessors, trust between the teachers and the taught, and above all, a political and administrative will for implementation.

General Accuracy and General Error Factors in Metacognitive Monitoring and the Role of Time on Task in Predicting Metacognitive Judgments / Factores de precisión general y de error general en el monitoreo metacognitivo y el papel del tiempo en la tarea de predecir juicios metacognitivos

Abstract (Gutierrez et al., 2016) conducted an experiment that provided evidence for the existence of two distinct factors in metacognitive monitoring: general accuracy and general error. They found level-1 domain-specific accuracy and error factors which loaded on second-order domain-general accuracy and error factors, which then loaded on a third-order general monitoring factor. In the present study, that experiment was repeated with 170 different participants from the same population. The present study confirmed the original findings. Both studies suggest that metacognitive monitoring consists of two different types of cognitive processes: one that is associated with accurate monitoring judgments and one that is associated with error in monitoring judgments. In addition, both studies suggest domain-specific accuracy and error factors which load onto second-order domain-general accuracy and error factors. Furthermore, in this study we devised an experiment in which general accuracy and general error are treated as separate latent dimensions and found that subjects employ the same resources they use to develop accurate judgments as a "baseline" for calibrating resources necessary in erroneous judgments, but not vice-versa. This finding supports and extends previous findings which suggests that the processes involved in managing metacognitive accuracy are different from those involved in contending with metacognitive error. Future instructional interventions in metacognitive monitoring will be better focused by concentrating on improving accuracy or reducing error, but not both concurrently.

Resumen (Gutiérrez et al., 2016) realizaron un experimento que proporcionó evidencia de la existencia de dos factores distintos en el monitoreo metacognitivo: precisión general y error general. Encontraron factores de error y precisión específicos de dominio de nivel 1 que se cargaron en factores de error y precisión general de dominio de segundo orden, que luego se cargaron en un factor de monitoreo general de tercer orden. En el presente estudio, ese experimento se repitió con 170 participantes diferentes de la misma población. El presente estudio confirmó los hallazgos originales. Ambos estudios sugieren que el monitoreo metacognitivo consiste en dos tipos diferentes de procesos cognitivos: uno que está asociado con juicios de monitoreo precisos y otro que está asociado con errores en los juicios de monitoreo. Además, ambos estudios sugieren que factores de precisión y error específico de dominio se cargan en factores de error y precisión general de dominio de segundo orden. Además, en este estudio diseñamos un experimento en el que la precisión general y el error general se tratan como dimensiones latentes separadas y descubrimos que los sujetos emplean los mismos recursos que utilizan para desarrollar juicios precisos como una "base" para calibrar los recursos necesarios en juicios erróneos, pero no viceversa. Este hallazgo respalda y amplía hallazgos anteriores que sugieren que los procesos involucrados en el manejo de la precisión metacognitiva son diferentes de los involucrados en la lucha contra el error metacognitivo. Es conveniente enfocar las futuras intervenciones de instrucción en la monitorización metacognitiva en mejorar la precisión o reducir el error, pero no ambas al mismo tiempo.

Diferencias en las decisiones utilitarias y morales entre hombres y mujeres / Differences on Utilitarian and Moral Decision Between Male and Female / Diferencias nas decisões utilitárias e morais entre homens e mulheres

Resumen Objetivo. Los juicios morales se basan en decisiones que toman en cuenta la representación de las normas y la ley, los valores, la funcionalidad y la situación en sí. La moral se ha estudiado con "dilemas morales hipotéticos" para identificar el tipo de resultado y el proceso detrás del razonamiento moral. No obstante, los juicios en sí mismos no son suficientes para establecer diferencias en el tipo de resolución o la relación con otros procesos cognitivos. Por lo anterior, el presente estudio buscó comparar el desempeño en tareas de maximización de la utilidad, control cognitivo y juicios morales, teniendo en cuenta el sexo y otras variables sociodemográficas. Método. Participaron 73 estudiantes universitarios (50 mujeres, 20 hombres y 3 con sexo no reportado, la edad promedio fue 19.53 años (DE = 1.68 años). El Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) se utilizó para identificar comportamientos de maximización de la utilidad. Además, el estudio empleó la prueba de cambios de tarea y la aplicación web Máquina Moral. Resultados. Se encontró una diferencia entre las variables de IGT, sin observar diferencias en la prueba de cambios de tarea. Conclusión. En cuanto al juicio moral, los hombres dieron más valor al cumplimiento de normas que las mujeres. Algunas variables de la tarea IGT apoyan las diferencias entre los sexos. Los resultados son congruentes con las diferencias mostradas por la literatura.

Abstract Objective. Moral judgments are based on decisions that take into account the representation of norms and law, values, functionality and situations themselves. Morality has been studied with "hypothetic moral dilemmas", in order to identify the type of outcome and the process behind moral reasoning. But judgments by themselves are not enough to establish differences in the type of resolution or the relationship with other cognitive processes. The present paper aimed to compare performance in tasks of utility maximization, cognitive control, and moral judgments, taking into account sex and other sociodemographic variables. Method. Seventy-three university students participated (50 women, 20 men and 3 with unreported gender, the average age was 19.53 years (SD = 1.68 years). The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) was used to identify behaviors of utility maximization. In addition, we used the switch costs and the web application of moral machine tasks. Results. A difference between variables of the IGT, but no differences in the switch costs task were found. Conclusion. Regarding moral judgment, males gave more value to respect norms than females. Some variables of the IGT task support outcomes related to differences between sexes. Results are congruent with differences shown in existing literature.

Resumo Escopo. Os juízos morais estão baseados em decisões que levam em conta a representação das normas e a lei, os valores, a funcionalidade e a situação concreta. A moral tem se estudado com "dilemas morais hipotéticos" para identificar o tipo de resultado e o processo detrás do razoamento moral. Mas os juízos em si não são suficientes para estabelecer diferencias no tipo de resolução ou a relação com outros processos cognitivos. Por tanto, o escopo de este estudo foi comparar o desempenho em tarefas de maximização da utilidade, controle cognitivo e juízos morais, levando em conta o sexo e outras variáveis sócio demográficas. Metodologia. Participaram 73 estudantes universitários (50 mulheres, 20 homens e 3 com sexo não reportado, a idade de média foi de19.3 anos, (DE = 1.68 anos). O Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) foi utilizado para identificar comportamentos de maximização da utilidade. Além, o estudo empregou a prova de mudança de tarefa e a aplicação web Máquina Moral. Resultados. Foi achada uma diferencia entre as variáveis de IGT, mas não há diferencias na prova de mudança de tarefa. Em quanto ao juízo moral, os homens deram mais valor ao cumprimento de normas que as mulheres. Algumas variáveis da tarefa IGT apoiam as diferencias entre os sexos. Conclusão. Os resultados são congruentes com as diferencias mostradas na literatura.

El papel de estructura argumental en el procesamiento de los compuestos verbo-nombre del español: Evidencias experimentales / The role of semantic argument structure in spanish verb-noun compound words: Experimental evidence

Los compuestos verbo-nombre del español presentan la particularidad de carecer de un núcleo que aporte los rasgos morfológicos, de categoría o semántico-referenciales. El acceso al significado depende entonces de la relación que mantienen los constituyentes entre sí y no a partir de la identificación de un elemento nuclear, como ocurre en compuestos que poseen un lexema referencial (telaraña, bocacalle). Dentro del compuesto verbo-nombre, la relación semántica que se establece entre los constituyentes no es única. Si bien la estructura semántica prototípica responde al patrón agente-paciente (cortacésped), existen otras posibilidades argumentales, como las relaciones locativas (pasacalle). El estudio realizado tuvo como objetivo determinar hasta qué punto la estructura argumental proyectada por el verbo tiene una influencia en el procesamiento cognitivo de estas unidades. Primeramente, se llevó a cabo un juicio de aceptabilidad para asegurar que los estímulos se correspondieran con la realidad lingüística de los participantes del estudio experimental. A continuación, se administró una prueba de decisión léxica con compuestos que poseían distintos tipos de estructura argumental: (1) agente / paciente (algo que V a N, abrelatas), (2) agente / paciente menos prototípica (procesos metafóricos, chupasangre) y (3) locativos (lugar donde x hace V a N, guardamuebles). Los resultados muestran que los tiempos de decisión (respuesta) ante compuestos locativos fueron significativamente mayores que ante los prototípicos. Este resultado no puede ser explicado por diferencias en longitud o frecuencia de los compuestos o sus constituyentes, por lo que parecen apoyar la hipótesis de que la estructura argumental juega un rol central en el procesamiento de estas palabras.

Research on the processing of compound words offers important insights on how the mental lexicon is organized. It is a current topic in psycholinguistics if compound words are represented and processed as unitary lexical units (full-listing models) or only as individual constituents analyzed via acombinatorial mechanism (full-parsing models). There is enough experimental evidence that both mechanisms are involved (dual-route models). Several characteristics of the stimuli, like length, morphological family size, frequency of compounds and their constituents are important factors to determine how they are processed. Compound words are meaningful units that contain smaller meaningful units. Therefore, in the domain of compounds' studies, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain how only one interpretation is achieved from two independent meanings. Models that describe the construction of lexical semantic features in compound words, like APPLE - Automatic Progressive Parsing and Lexical Excitation (Libben 1994,1998) or CARIN - Competition Among Relations in Nominals (Gagné, 2000), are based on the notion of a morphological head. According to these theories the recognition of the head would trigger an interpretation of the whole word. In noun-noun compounds (pez espada, 'swordfish', telaraña 'spiderweb'), in which the head has the referential features, the identification of this head and the posterior clarification of the relationship with the non-head lexeme is the way to interpret the whole compound (pez 'fish' and tela 'web', respectively). However, not every compound has a head with the referential attributes inside. Verb-noun compounding is an extremely productive word-formation process in Romance languages. Spanish verb-noun compounds have the particularity of being exocentric: these constructions do not present a categorical, morphological or semantic head. Therefore, access to the meaning depends on the relationship between both of their constituent lexemes. For these units, the traditional distinction between semantically transparent and semantically opaque compounds is not suitable, because it doesn't take under consideration the projection of the argument structure by the verbal constituent. The semantic relationship established between the lexemes within a compound is not unique. While the prototypical semantic structure responds to the agent-patient pattern (cortacésped), there are other semantic possibilities, such as locative relationships (pasacalle). The present study addresses the issue of the comprehension of Spanish verb-noun compounds in order to provide evidence about the role of the argument structure projected by the first lexeme in the whole-word meaning. It is proposed that the argument structure of the verbal constituent has a cognitive influence on the processing and comprehension of these units. Firstly, an acceptability judgment test was administrated in order to identify a group of verb-noun compounds that were adequate for the Argentinean Spanish lexicon. Secondly, a lexical decision task was conducted with the stimuli selected as acceptable. Thirty native speakers (20 females), ranged in age from 19 to 34 years old, with at least 12 years of schooling, participated in the experiment. The lexical decision task included three types of compounds according to their argument structure: (1) Agent / patient (abrelatas), (2) Agent / patient with less prototypical features or metaphorical processes (chupasangre), and (3) locatives (guardamuebles). Stimuli were matched according to the whole-word and constituent frequency and length. For the statistical analysis, ANOVAs were calculated for error rates and response times (RTs) for each condition. Results show that reaction times (answers) to locative compounds were significantly higher than to agent-patient compounds. This contrast cannot be explained by differences in frequency or length, of the compounds or their constituents. Consequently, the present results seem to support the hypothesis that argument structure plays a central role in the processing of these words.

Blame attribution among people with developmental disab / Imputación de culpa entre personas con desorden del desarrollo

We synthesize the main findings from two studies that examined moral judgement abilities in people with autism, and in people with Down syndrome. In both studies, the way these people mentally combine information about the intent of a harmful act and the severity of its consequences when attributing blame to an offender was compared with that of typically developing controls. Adolescents and adults with autism or with Down syndrome were, practically to the same extent as controls, able to take into account both information pieces for attributing blame. It would be an exaggeration to imply that adolescents and adults with either autism or Down syndrome are severely immature in moral judgement based on the fact that they are usually not able to explain or justify their judgements with sophisticated philosophical arguments. By contrast, children with autism blame attribution appeared to be essentially based on consequence information. The finding that adolescents and adults with autism or Down syndrome are able to make moral judgements in a way that is not very different from adolescents and adults of the same age could influence the way these people are perceived, cared for, and attributed basic rights.

Sintetizamos las principales conclusiones de dos estudios que examinaron la capacidad de juicio moral en personas con autismo y en personas con síndrome de Down. En ambos estudios, la forma en que estas personas combinan mentalmente la información acerca de la intención que puede haber en un acto perjudicial y la gravedad de sus consecuencias cuando se atribuye la culpa a un delincuente, se comparó con la de un grupo control (con desarrollo normal). Adolescentes y adultos con autismo o con síndrome de Down fueron, prácticamente de la misma medida que los del grupo control, capaces de tener en cuenta ambas piezas de información para atribuir la culpa. Sería una exageración asegurar que los adolescentes y los adultos, ya sea con autismo o síndrome de Down son severamente inmaduros en sus juicios morales basado en el hecho de que por lo general no son capaces de explicar o justificar sus juicios con argumentos filosóficos sofisticados. Por el contrario, los niños con autismo que realizaron atribución de culpa parecían basarse esencialmente en la información sobre la consecuencia. El hallazgo de que los adolescentes y adultos con autismo o síndrome de Down son capaces de hacer juicios morales de una manera que no es muy diferente a la de los adolescentes y los adultos de la misma edad podría influir en la forma en que estas personas son perciben, cuidadas, y valoradas en sus derechos básicos.

Hierarquia social e atribuição causal em auto e hetero-avaliações de desculpas / Social hierarchy and causal attribution in self and other-evaluation of excuses / Jerarquía social y atribución causal en auto y heteroevaluaciones de disculpas

Em contextos sociais, quando ocorre uma falha, frequentemente usam-se as mais diversas justificativas. A questão que emerge desse contexto é quão desculpável a justificativa se apresenta a depender de sua causa (externa, interna controlável ou interna incontrolável) e da hierarquia social de quem a pede. Esta pesquisa investigou efeitos de pedidos de desculpas, feitos por pessoas de hierarquias diferentes, entre três diferentes alvos de avaliação ­ auto (eu) e hetero (meus amigos e outros). Trezentos participantes responderam a cenários em que alguém (ora um professor, ora um aluno) se atrasa para um compromisso e oferece três tipos de desculpas que deveriam ser respondidas em três alvos de avaliação. Os resultados corroboraram o modelo de Weiner (2006), mostrando que desculpas com causas externas foram mais aceitáveis que as internas incontroláveis, seguidas das internas controláveis. Pedidos de desculpas feitos pelo professor, no entanto, foram menos aceitos. Na comparação entre auto e hetero-avaliação, confirmou-se o viés de falsa-unicidade, já que os respondentes julgaram aceitar mais os pedidos feitos a eles do que as outras pessoas aceitariam. Discutem-se aplicações para o contexto escolar, em especial para o gerenciamento de impressão em situações de hierarquia definida. (AU)

In social contexts, when a fail occurs, people usually use different justifications. This raises a question that concerns how much acceptable is this excuse, depending on its cause (external, internal controllable or internal uncontrollable) and the social status of those who use it. The present research investigated the effects of excuses given by people from different hierarchy levels considering three different targets ­ self and others (friends and other people). Three hundred participants judged how acceptable three excuses were in scenarios in which a person (either a teacher or a student) is coming late to an appointment. Results supported Weiner´s attributional model (2006), by showing that excuses with external causes were regarded as more acceptable than those with uncontrollable internal causes, followed by controllable internal ones. Also, excuses given by professors were less accepted. When comparing different evaluations, a false uniqueness bias was confirmed, as participants judged themselves as more benevolent than others. Applications for educational context are discussed, especially for impression management in clearly defined hierarchical settings. (AU)

En contextos sociales, cuando se comete una falla, las personas empleán diferentes justificaciones. Esto plantea una pregunta que se refiere a quan aceptable es la excusa, dependiendo de su causa (externa, interna incontrolable o interna controlable) y el tipo de situación social. En el presente estudio se investigó los efectos de las excusas dadas por personas de diferentes niveles de jerarquía, considerando tres diferentes actores sociales: la persona, sus amigos y las otras personas en general). Trescientos participantes juzgaron cuanto aceptables tres excusas estaban en escenarios en los que una persona (un profesor o un estudiante) está llegando tarde a una cita. Los resultados apoyaron lo modelo atribucional de Weiner (2006), mostrando que las excusas con causas externas fueron consideradas como más aceptables que las que tienen causas internas incontrolables, seguidas de las internas controlables. Además, excusas dadas por los profesores fueran menos aceptadas. Al comparar las evaluaciones acerca de los diferentes actores sociales, se confirmó el efecto de falsa singularidad, ya que los participantes juzgaban a sí mismos como más benevolentes que los otros. Se discuten los problemas de contexto educativo, especialmente para la gestión de las impresiones en contextos jerárquicos con relaciones claramente definidas. (AU)

Identificación de criterios de orden legal y científico en el derecho probatorio del sistema penal que incidieron en el proferimiento de sentencias de los enjuiciados por delitos sexuales entre el 2009-2010 en dos municipios del Valle del Cauca / Identification of criteria of legal and scientific nature in the probative law of the criminal system having influenced the delivery of judgments and the passing of sentences for those having been prosecuted or tried for sexual crimes during 2009-2010 in two Valle del Cauca municipalities / Identificação de critérios para a ordem jurídica e científica no direito probatório do sistema de justiça criminal que afetaram o proferimento das sentenças dos processados por ofensas sexuais entre 2009-2010 em dois municípios de Valle del Cauca

El objetivo fue identificar los criterios de orden legal y científico en el derecho probatorio del sistema penal que incidieron en el proferimiento de sentencias de los enjuiciados por delitos sexuales entre el 2009-2010 en dos municipios del Valle del Cauca. El método utilizado consistió en el estudio de casos en 21 fallos entre el 2009-2010, con aplicación de variables sociodemográficas, médicolegales/ científico-forenses utilizadas para la descripción de los casos. En los análisis realizados en SPSS, se calcularon medidas de tendencia central, posición y dispersión a los datos cuantitativos, y a los cualitativos se les calcularon proporciones y razones. Se usó el test de chi cuadrado y un valor de p ≤=0,05 fue considerado como significante. Los resultados obtenidos evidenciaron que las mujeres entre 5-14 años fueron las más afectadas, y sus agresores, prevalentes familiares. La mayoría de los casos fueron actos sexuales abusivos, dos de acto sexual agravado en concurso homogéneo y heterogéneo. El informe médico-legal estuvo en todas las sentencias, y le siguió, en orden de frecuencia, el de psicología forense. Los ausentes en su mayor proporción fueron los de biología o genética forense. La investigación realizada permitió concluir que es tarea de los jueces garantizar la integridad de los menores víctimas de abuso sexual; no obstante, para ello cuentan con poco acervo probatorio científico-forense.

The objective was to identify criteria of legal and scientific nature in the probative law of the criminal system having influenced the delivery of judgments and the passing of sentences for those having been prosecuted or tried for sexual crimes over 2009-2010 in two Valle del Cauca municipalities. The method used involved case studies in 21 court decisions taking place from 2009 through 2010 with the application of socio-demographic, medical-legal/scientific forensic variables used in the respective descriptions. In analyses conducted with SPSS, central trend measures, position and dispersion were calculated for quantitative data, and proportions and rations for those of qualitative nature. The Chi-square test was used, and a p ≤=0.05 value was deemed significant. The results obtained evidenced that females between the ages of 5 through 14 were the most aff ected, aggressors being often family members. Most cases referred to abusive sexual acts, two of them aggravated, in multiple and concomitant combination. In order of frequency, in all judgments there were medicallegal and forensic psychology reports. In a larger proportion, reports concerning biology or forensic-genetics were not available. Research carried out helped conclude that judges should be in charge of ensuring the integrity of minors having been victims of any form of sexual abuse; notwithstanding this responsibility, their probatory material and scientific-forensic evidence on hand are very poor.

O objetivo foi identificar os critérios de ordem legal e científica no dereito probatório do sistema de justiça criminal que afetaram a proferimento das sentenças dos processados por crimes sexuais entre 2009-2010 em dois municípios de Valle del Cauca. O método utilizado foi o estudo de casos em 21 senteças entre 2009-2010, com aplicação de variáveis sociodemográficas médico-legais / científico-forenses, utilizadas na descrição dos casos. Nas análises realizadas no SPSS, as medidas de tendência central, posição e dispersão foram calculadas aos dados quantitativos e proporções e razões foram calculadas aos qualitativos. O teste de qui-quadrado e um valor p ≤=0,05 foi usado e foi considerado como significativo. Os resultados mostraram que as mulheres com idade entre 5-14 anos foram as mais afetadas, e seus agressores, prevalentes parentes. A maioria dos casos foram atos sexuais abusivos, dois de ato sexual agravado em concurso homogêneo e heterogêneo. O relatório médico-legal estave em todas as senteças, e seguido, em ordem de freqüência, um de psicologia forense. Os ausentes em maior proporção foram os de biologia ou genética forense. A pesquisa levou à conclusão de que é a tarefa dos juízes garantir a integridade das crianças vítimas de abuso sexual; no entanto, para isso têm pouca evidência forense científica.

Judicialização da Política de Assistência Farmacêutica: Discussão sobre as Causas de Pedir no Distrito Federal / Judicialization of Pharmaceutical Assistance Policy: discussion of causes for the actions in Federal District

O direito à saúde, garantido constitucionalmente, abriu a possibilidade de sua tutela judicial pelo cidadão, fazendo crescer o número de ações judiciais e gerando o fenômeno da judicialização da saúde. A pesquisa discutiu as causas de pedir verificadas nos acórdãos do Tribunal de Justiça do Distrito Federal e Territórios (TJDFT), relativos às ações impetradas contra a Secretaria de Saúde do Distrito Federal (SES/DF) para o fornecimento de medicamentos, e identificou os medicamentos pleiteados, bem como suas classes terapêuticas. Tratou-se de estudo transversal e retrospectivo de abordagem qualiquantitativa abrangendo os anos de 2010 a 2012. A amostra selecionada foi de 359 acórdãos. Foi verificado que 37,0 % das ações demandavam medicamentos não elencados em listas oficiais; 24,2 % motivaram-se pela falta do medicamento na SES/DF e 13,4% por interrupção no fornecimento. As classes terapêuticas mais demandadas foram: 22,8% de antineoplásicos e imunomoduladores; 22,7% para o sistema nervoso e 12% de cardiovasculares. Apesar dos esforços do Estado previstos nas políticas públicas, verificou-se que atos administrativos dos gestores do SUS impactaram diretamente na judicialização da assistência farmacêutica, resultando nas demandas judiciais por medicamento contra a SES/DF.

The right to health, constitutionally guaranteed, opened the possibility of judicial protection for the citizen, growing the number of lawsuits and generating the Health Judicialization phenomenon. The research discussed the causes of action observed in the judgments of the Court of Justice of the Federal District and Territories (TJDFT) related to lawsuits filed against the Federal District Health Department (SES / DF) for the supply of medicines, and identified medicines pleaded, as well as its therapeutic classes. This was cross-sectional retrospective study of qualitative and quantitative approach covering the years 2010 to 2012. The selected sample of 359 cases. It was found that 37.0% of the shares demanded drugs not listed on official lists; 24,2% were motivated by the lack of medicine in the SES / DF and 13.4% for disruption in supply. The highest demanded therapeutic classes were: 22.8% of antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents; 22.7% to 12% nervous system and cardiovascular. Despite the efforts of the planned public policy of the state, it was found that administrative acts of SUS managers had impact directly on the judicialization of pharmaceutical care, resulting in lawsuits by drug against SES / DF.

El derecho a la salud, garantizado por la Constitución, se abrió la posibilidad de la protección judicial de los ciudadanos, al crecer el número de demandas y la generación de la legalización del fenómeno salud. La investigación analizó las causas de acción que se observan en el Tribunal de Justicia del Distrito Federal y Territorios (TJDFT) relacionados con demandas presentadas contra el Departamento de Salud del Distrito Federal (SES / DF) para el suministro de medicamentos y medicamentos identificados declarado, así como sus clases terapéuticas. Este fue un estudio retrospectivo transversal del enfoque cualitativo y cuantitativo para los años 2010 y 2012. La muestra seleccionada de 359 casos. Se encontró que 37,0% de las acciones exigió drogas no mencionadas en las listas oficiales; 24,2% motivado por la falta de medicamentos en el SES / DF y el 13,4% para la interrupción en el suministro. Las más altas clases terapéuticas de demanda fueron: 22,8% de los agentes antineoplásicos e inmunomoduladores; 22,7% a 12% del sistema nervioso y cardiovascular. A pesar de la política pública prevista de los esfuerzos estatales, se encontró que los actos administrativos de los gestores del SUS impactados directamente sobre la legalización de la atención farmacéutica, lo que resulta en demandas por drogas contra SES / DF.

Mnemotecnia y metamemoria en personas mayores / The Keyword Mnemonic Technique and Metamemory in Elders

En esta investigación, se pretendió averiguar la influencia de la mnemotecnia de la palabra clave en el recuerdo y en los juicios metamnemónicos: juicios de facilidad de aprendizaje (EOL), juicios de aprendizaje (JOL) y juicios de confianza (CL), tanto en una lista corta de 16 palabras latinas (Experimento 1) como en una lista larga de 32 palabras latinas (Experimento 2). Tanto en el Experimento 1 como en el Experimento 2 se efectuó un diseño experimental de dos grupos independientes. En el Experimento 1 participaron 88 mujeres, con una media de edad de 74.34 años. En el 2, participó un grupo de 84 mujeres, de una edad similar al anterior. En ambos experimentos se realizó una prueba t de Student para muestras independientes. En el Experimento 1, se encontró que el método de la palabra clave fue superior al método de repetición en el recuerdo y en los juicios de confianza en la respuesta (CL). En el Experimento 2, se halló que el método de la palabra clave fue significativamente superior al método de repetición en el recuerdo y en todos los juicios metamnemónicos estudiados. El método de la palabra clave fue más eficaz que el método de repetición.

This study consisted of two experiments designed to assess the efficacy of the keyword mnemonic technique on recall and the following mnemonic judgments: ease of learning (EOL), judgments of learning (JOL), and confidence level (CL) using a short word list i.e., 16 Latin words (Experiment 1), or a long word list, 32 Latin words (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1 an experimental design with two independent groups was performed, involving 88 women, mean age 74.34 years, a Student's t-test for independent groups was performed and the keyword method was found to be more efficacious than the rote learning method on recall and confidence level judgments (CL). In Experiment 2 an experimental design with two independent groups was performed, involving 84 women of similar age, a Student's t-test for independent groups was performed, and the keyword method was significantly more efficacious than the rote learning method on recall and all of the mnemonic judgments under study. The keyword method was more effective than the rote learning method.

Advances in psychopathic individuals' moral judgments and the underlying neural mechanisms / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective To review psychopathic individuals' moral judgments and the underlying neural mechanisms in order to provide cognitive basis and the corresponding intervention for their socially deviant behavior.Methods Literatures were searched in Academic Search Premier,Science Direct,Highwire,PubMed and Wanfang database by July 2015.Index strategy:AB [psychopathy OR psychopathic] AND AB [moral judgments OR moral reasoning].Forty-seven articles including six in Chinese were chosen based on their abstracts and key words.Results 33 papers were adopted finally including 2 in Chinese.Most of the papers involved representative empirical studies within five years.Conclusion Compared with non-psychopathic individuals,psychopathic individuals are inclined to consider moral transgressions as more acceptable and are more inclined to make utilitarian moral judgments.Their impairment in moral judgments is associated with dysfunction in specific brain regions such as amygdale,dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,and ventromedial prefrontal cortex,and dysfunction in the basic brain system.Psychopathic individuals' moral judgment impairment needs to be examined within the frame of affect and their moral reasoning processes should be investigated in the future.

Moralidade e concepção de amor em crianças de 6 e 9anos / Morality and conception of love in 6 and 9 years old children

Refletindo sobre a importância das virtudes no desenvolvimento moral, nosso objetivo foi investigar as concepções das crianças sobre o amor. Entrevistamos, individualmente, 40 crianças, de 6 e 9 anos, em uma escola particular de Vila Velha-ES, de acordo com o método clínico proposto por Piaget. Solicitamos que cada criança mencionasse exemplos de experiência de amor e, posteriormente, justificasse suas respostas. Os exemplos mais citados foram 'ações de amor para outrem' (como ajudar e cuidar) e 'amor por determinada(s) pessoa(s)' (pessoas da família e amigos, entre outros), que aumentaram com a idade; e 'ações com amor' (como brincar e beijar), que apresentaram um decréscimo. As justificativas ressaltaram, principalmente, a consequência positiva que o exemplo de amor propiciaria, especialmente, a si próprio, ou seja, um interesse próprio que aumentou com a idade. Salientamos que o sentimento foi mencionado tanto como exemplo de amor, como justificativa. Verificamos que a concepção que as crianças têm do amor é ampla, sendo importante, portanto, darmos ênfase no processo de formação dessa virtude, uma vez que o amor auxilia na formação moral. Assim, esperamos incentivar outros trabalhos e discussões sobre o amor, contribuindo para propostas de educação e auxiliando na formação moral das crianças...

Reflecting on the importance of virtues in moral development, our aim was to investigate children's concepts about love. We individually interviewed 40 children, 6 and 9 years old, in a private school in Vila Velha-ES, according to the clinical method proposed by Piaget. We asked each child to mention examples of experiences of love, and then later, to justify their answers. The examples cited were 'giving love to others' (such as helping and caring) and 'love for (a) particular person/ people' (family members and friends, among others), which increased with age, and 'actions with love' (like playing and kissing), which showed a decrease. The reasons pointed out, especially, the positive result that an example of love would provide, especially to them, that is, an interest in oneself that increased with age. We underline that the feeling was mentioned both as an example of love and as a justification. It was verified that the concept children have of love is wide, so it is important, therefore, to give emphasis on the process of formation of this virtue, since love helps in the moral formation. Thus, hopefully we encourage other works and discussions about love, contributing to proposals for education and assisting in the moral formation of children...

An experiment set-up for analysis of lateralization judgments of binaural stimuli

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this work is to present a physical implementation of a noninvasive methodology to analyze the directional sensitivity of human auditory system. A computer controlled experiment set-up has been designed and developed to study the behavior of human subjects under the presentation of interaural time delays and interaural amplitude differences for several sensation levels. METHODS: The proposed methodology comprises: the application of trains of low-pass filtered narrow pulses as acoustic binaural stimuli; the automatic, simultaneous and random variation of interaural time delays and interaural amplitude differences; the absence of human interference along the experimental sessions, except for the decision of the listener under test; the minimization of adaptation effects. RESULTS: Numerous lateralization judgments have been accomplished in order to investigate the transduction mechanism which allows deciding which side of subjects medial plane the source of binaural acoustic stimuli is located in. The behavior of decision time with the order of judgment, the sensation levels and the interaural differences in time and amplitudes has been analyzed. CONCLUSION: The noninvasive, reliable and automatic approach here presented allows obtaining psychophysical responses associated to the neuro-physiological phenomena underneath lateralization capability.

Magnitude and valence of outcomes as determinants of causal judgments / Magnitud y valencia de las consecuencias como determinantes de la atribución de juicios causales

This study examines if the blocking effect paradigm predicts causal judgments when consequences of events vary in valence and magnitude. The procedure consists on presenting participants with reports describing the positive or negative effects produced by different substances, when these are consumed either separately or simultaneously with others. Two groups of participants were exposed to high and low magnitude consequences, respectively. The extent to which behavior with respect to causal judgments is consistent with the predictions of the blocking effect was evaluated in in both groups using two types of questions. One of them asked whether or not substance X produced the effect, while the other one asked about the probability of substance X producing the effect. Differences in causal judgments as a product of logical or intuitive reasoning were examined. Even though the blocking effect was not observed, a significant interaction was obtained between the factors valence and experimental condition (blocking and control). Findings are discussed in terms of the differences between associative learning in humans and in non-human animals, and in terms of the theoretical differences between evaluative conditioning and predictive or causal conditioning.

El propósito de este proyecto es examinar si el modelo de bloqueo predice la atribución de juicios causales al variar la valencia y la magnitud de las consecuencias. El arreglo experimental consiste en la presentación de reportes sobre los efectos positivos y negativos que producen diferentes sustancias al ser consumidas solas o en conjunto con otras. Los participantes del primer grupo estuvieron expuestos a consecuencias de alta magnitud y los del segundo grupo, a consecuencias de baja magnitud. Se evaluó si la atribución de causalidad es consistente con las predicciones del efecto bloqueo mediante dos tipos de pregunta: una pregunta acerca si la sustancia X produce o no el efecto, y una pregunta sobre la probabilidad de que X produzca el efecto. Se examinaron las diferencias en los juicios causales cuando las atribuciones son producto del razonamiento lógico o intuitivo. Si bien no se observó evidencia del efecto bloqueo, se obtuvieron efectos de interacción entre los factores valencia y condición experimental (sustancias bloqueo y control). Se discuten los hallazgos en términos de las diferencias entre el aprendizaje asociativo en humanos y animales no humanos, y en términos de las implicaciones sobre las diferencias teóricas entre el condicionamiento evaluativo y el condicionamiento predictivo.

An investigation of social judgments made by young adults toward appearance of dental fluorosis.

Background : Smile is a crucial factor in creating a good first impression. However conditions like dental fluorosis hamper the esthetics of teeth. This study was conducted to find out whether young adults attribute socially relevant characteristics to people with dental fluorosis. Materials and Methods : A total of 150 young adults were presented with images of individuals with different severity levels of dental fluorosis along with images of normal tooth appearance on a computer screen. They had to attribute various socially relevant characteristics to these images. Images were digitally manipulated to simulate dental fluorosis. Images were displayed on a computer screen and Visual Basic Software was used to record the participants' responses as well as the time taken to respond. The time taken to respond or response latency indicates the response strength. Statistical analysis : A chi-square test was used to test the association between the dental appearances and the socially relevant characteristics. A Mann--Whitney test was used to compare the time taken to respond. Results : As the severity of fluorosis increases, participants attribute less and less of positive characteristics. Attribution of negative characteristics also increases with the severity of dental fluorosis. For images with moderate and severe fluorosis, respondents took more time to accept positive characteristics and less time to reject positive characteristic. This means that the participants felt strongly when rejecting positive characteristics in these images. Conclusion : Social judgments are made by young adults when viewing digitally manipulated images of different levels of fluorosis.

Falácia da conjunção: definição e variáveis de controle / Conjunction fallacy: definition and control variables

A falácia da conjunção ocorre quando a conjunção de dois eventos é julgada como mais provável de ocorrer do que seus eventos constituintes. Esse fenômeno tem sido investigado principalmente por psicólogos cognitivistas, mas, recentemente, tem atraído o interesse de alguns analistas do comportamento. O presente trabalho consiste em um resumo da literatura sobre falácia, no qual são enfatizadas as estratégias metodológicas utilizadas e os resultados empíricos obtidos. Dentre as variáveis controladoras analisadas, são destacadas a representatividade, o uso inadequado de regras probabilísticas, as experiências passadas com os eventos constituintes e compostos, o treino estatístico e os aspectos verbais e contextuais.

The conjunction fallacy occurs when the conjunction of two events is judged as more probable to occur than its constituent events. This phenomenon has been investigated mainly by cognitive psychologists but, recently, it has called the attention of some behavior analysts. The present study summarizes the literature on fallacy, emphasizing the methodological strategies used and the empirical results attained. Among the control variables analyzed, some special attention is given to the representativeness, the inadequate use of probabilistic rules, the previous experiences with constituent and compound events, the statistical training, and verbal and contextual aspects.

Neurobiología de las emociones morales

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Summary This work presents a critical review of the historical, theoretical, and neurobiological bases of the theory of moral emotions. Neuroimaging methods and protocols used to study the neural correlates of moral emotions and the analysis of the brain functions involved in their processing, permit the formulation of hypotheses that attempt to understand some emotional and cognitive processes related to moral emotions. One such hypothesis refers to a neuro-matrix involving sensory systems, brainstemmediated physiological reactions and frontal brain regions processing the interaction between moral and emotional stimuli. Cross-cultural research on human facial expression has identified universal patterns to express basic emotions such as fear, anger, or happiness. Nevertheless, the experience of some emotions and their facial expressions are regulated by social and cultural mechanisms. This type of regulation is observed in moral emotions since they are linked to the interests or welfare either of society as a whole, or of persons other than the judge or agent. Two typical features that identify moral emotions are their typical elicitors and tendencies towards specific actions. The release of a moral emotion is the perception of implicit and explicit violations of social norms and stereotypes included in personal codes, attitudes, and beliefs. In turn, the actions ensuing from moral emotions are communal or prosocial, because they promote a benefit in others and/or in the social order. Although there is not a definitive taxonomy of moral emotions, four families of prosocial feelings are suggested: a) other-condemning emotions (contempt, anger, disgust); b) self-conscious emotions (shame, embarrassment, guilt); c) other-suffering emotions (compassion); d) other-praising emotions (gratitude, awe, elevation). Such emotions are relevant to the concept of morality because this is a complex representation that includes models of prohibited actions, notions of good and bad, concepts of fairness, ideals of justice, or justifications of punitive actions. Moreover, the cognitive processes and behaviors involved in moral emotions are related to the theory of mind that refers the ability to represent the mental and emotional states of others, such as their thoughts, desires, beliefs, intentions, and knowledge. The neurobiological substrate of this capacity involves cerebral regions related to the experience of basic emotions, such as the amygdala and the cingulated cortex, and regions related to complex cognition and emotional-social contexts, such as the prefrontal cortex and the superior temporal sulcus. Neurobiological approaches to moral emotions have become relevant to study psychopathologies linked to antisocial behaviors, particularly the psychopathic or Antisocial Personality Disorder. Psychopaths show decreased emotional and physiological reactions to emotional stimuli and deficiencies to identify emotional expressions. However, they do not fail to represent or to infer others mental states or theory of mind. Therefore, the psychopathic disorder is not only linked to distortions in interpreting socially-learned moral values, but also to alterations of cognitive processes required to link the affective system to moral values. This assumption is supported by brain-imaging studies demonstrating the involvement of areas associated to the processing of complex social stimulus and language, such as prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, polar frontal cortex, and anterior temporal lobe in psychopathic patients. The affected areas also include regions such as the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, thalamus, and caudate nucleus involved in the experience or expression of emotions. Scientific publications directly referring to the neurobiological research of moral emotions and the evaluation of moral judgments occupy a period between 2001 and 2005. The neurobiology of moral emotions has evolved rapidly by the use neuro-imaging techniques such as Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Brain images related to moral emotions are obtained by the use of moral stimuli in three types of situations: (a) while subjects resolve cognitive tasks, for example, reading moral emotional statements, (b) during passive or instructed viewing of affective pictures, or (c) during the resolution of moral dilemmas. The brain areas that become significantly active during these tasks provide a neurobiological interpretation of the mental operations involved in moral emotions. Thus, the medial frontal gyrus is activated during the elaborate personal and impersonal moral judgments produced by viewing moral pictures, attributing intentionality of movement, processing of facial expressions, and during the attribution of mental states (theory of mind). The posterior cingulated, restrosplenial, and precuneus cortex are associated with the elaboration of moral judgments elicited by viewing moral pictures and theory of mind. The superior temporal sulcus and the parietal lobe are related with moral judgments while viewing moral and emotional pictures and films, and attributing intentional movements. The superior temporal sulcus is also associated with the processing of social contexts. Orbitofronal and ventromedial frontal cortex is associated with the processing of simple moral judgments while viewing moral pictures, the evaluation of emotionally-charged social events, during empathy and attribution. The temporal pole is also associated with theory of mind, the elaboration of simple moral judgments and with the recalling of emotional situations. The amygdala is activated during the processing of moral pictures and social events based on facial expressions. Other empirical investigations involving a moral interpretation of data such as studies of general emotions, empathy, theory of mind, neurological disorders, and antisocial behavior, are also relevant to understand the brain activation patterns associated to cognitive and emotional social functions. Working models of psychopathologies that manifest antisocial behaviors are also required to interpret neuroimaging data. Meta-analyses of human behavior and proto-moral behavior in non-human species related to the elaboration of moral judgments and emotions are also relevant for the same purpose. Finally, moral emotion research requires the elaboration of accurate protocols based on psychological approaches directed to elicit particular moral emotions which enable the definition and neural substrates of its specific qualities.

Juicios expresados por niñas y niños de 9 a 11 años de edad sobre comportamientos y actitudes que conducen a la aceptación o al rechazo social en un grupo escolar / Judgments expressed by children between 9 to 11 years old, about behaviors and attitudes that lead to acceptance or social rejection in a school group

Este estudio buscó identificar comportamientos y actitudes que asocian niños y niñas, entre los 9 y 11 años de edad, con la aceptación y el rechazo social en un grupo escolar. Se pidió a los niños y niñas hacer estimaciones sobre la importancia que distintas cualidades y defectos tienen como factores que contribuyen a que un niño sea aceptado, o por el contrario, sufra el rechazo de sus compañeros de colegio. Para la recolección de los datos, se utilizaron tres instrumentos: un test sociométrico, un cuestionario sobre cualidades que contribuyen a que el niño goce de aceptación social y un cuestionario sobre defectos que conducen al rechazo de los compañeros. Estos instrumentos se aplicaron colectivamente en el aula de clase con la instrucción de responder independientemente sin comentar sus respuestas con sus compañeros. Los datos obtenidos fueron procesados estadísticamente a través de análisis de correlación y de varianza. La mayoría de los niños coincidió en sus juicios sobre el grado de importancia de algunas cualidades y algunos defectos. Al comparar niños y niñas, se observaron diferencias significativas en sus apreciaciones sobre algunas cualidades. El grado de integración social ostentado por los niños en su grupo escolar no pareció incidir en forma significativa sobre los juicios que expresaron. Los resultados sugieren algunos perfiles prototípicos de niños aceptados y rechazados en los grupos escolares.

The aim of this study was to identify behaviors and attitudes that children, between the 9 and 11 years of age, associate with the acceptance and the social rejection within a school group. Children were asked to make estimations about the importance that different qualities and defects have as factors that contribute to that a boy could be accepted, or on the contrary, feel the rejection of its schoolmates. To collect the information, tree measuring instruments were used: a socio-metric test, a questionnaire on qualities that contribute a child to enjoy to be accepted and a questionnaire on defects that lead to the rejection of the partnerships. These instruments were applied collectively in the classroom, but it was asked each boy to respond independently without commenting its answers with its classmates. The collected data were process statistically through variance and correlation analysis. Most of the children's answer coincided on the degree of importance of some qualities and some defects. The degree of social integration shown social integration shown by the children within its scholar group did not seem to affect significant form the judgments that expressed. The results suggest some prototypes profiles of accepted and rejected children to the interior of the scholar groups.