A differential diagnosis of inherited endocrine tumors and their tumor counterparts

Inherited endocrine tumors have been increasingly recognized in clinical practice, although some difficulties still exist in differentiating these conditions from their sporadic endocrine tumor counterparts. Here, we list the 12 main topics that could add helpful information and clues for performing an early differential diagnosis to distinguish between these conditions. The early diagnosis of patients with inherited endocrine tumors may be performed either clinically or by mutation analysis in at-risk individuals. Early detection usually has a large impact in tumor management, allowing preventive clinical or surgical therapy in most cases. Advice for the clinical and surgical management of inherited endocrine tumors is also discussed. In addition, recent clinical and genetic advances for 17 different forms of inherited endocrine tumors are briefly reviewed.

Growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 in growth hormone-deficient Little mice

OBJECTIVE: To investigate a possible direct, growth hormone-releasing, hormone-independent action of a growth hormone secretagogue, GHRP-2, in pituitary somatotroph cells in the presence of inactive growth hormonereleasing hormone receptors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The responses of serum growth hormone to acutely injected growth hormone-releasing P-2 in lit/litmice, which represent a model of GH deficiency arising frommutated growth hormone-releasing hormonereceptors, were compared to those observed in the heterozygous (lit/+) littermates and wild-type (+/+) C57BL/6J mice. RESULTS: After the administration of 10 mcg of growth hormone-releasing P-2 to lit/lit mice, a growth hormone release of 9.3±1.5 ng/ml was observed compared with 1.04±1.15 ng/ml in controls (p<0.001). In comparison, an intermediate growth hormone release of 34.5±9.7 ng/ml and a higher growth hormone release of 163±46 ng/ml were induced in the lit/+ mice and wild-type mice, respectively. Thus, GHRP-2 stimulated growth hormone in the lit/lit mice, and the release of growth hormone in vivo may be only partially dependent on growth hormone-releasing hormone. Additionally, the plasma leptin and ghrelin levels were evaluated in the lit/lit mice under basal and stimulated conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we have demonstrated that lit/lit mice, which harbor a germline mutation in the Growth hormone-releasing hormone gene, maintain a limited but statistically significant growth hormone elevation after exogenous stimulation with GHRP-2. The present data probably reflect a direct, growth hormone-independent effect on Growth hormone S (ghrelin) stimulation in the remaining pituitary somatotrophs of little mice that is mediated by growth hormone S-R 1a.

Narrowing the gap of personalized medicine in emerging countries: the case of multiple endocrine neoplasias in Brazil

The finished version of the human genome sequence was completed in 2003, and this event initiated a revolution in medical practice, which is usually referred to as the age of genomic or personalized medicine. Genomic medicine aims to be predictive, personalized, preventive, and also participative (4Ps). It offers a new approach to several pathological conditions, although its impact so far has been more evident in mendelian diseases. This article briefly reviews the potential advantages of this approach, and also some issues that may arise in the attempt to apply the accumulated knowledge from genomic medicine to clinical practice in emerging countries. The advantages of applying genomic medicine into clinical practice are obvious, enabling prediction, prevention, and early diagnosis and treatment of several genetic disorders. However, there are also some issues, such as those related to: (a) the need for approval of a law equivalent to the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, which was approved in 2008 in the USA; (b) the need for private and public funding for genetics and genomics; (c) the need for development of innovative healthcare systems that may substantially cut costs (e.g. costs of periodic medical followup); (d) the need for new graduate and postgraduate curricula in which genomic medicine is emphasized; and (e) the need to adequately inform the population and possible consumers of genetic testing, with reference to the basic aspects of genomic medicine.

RET haplotype, not linked to the C620R activating mutation, associated with Hirschsprung disease in a novel MEN2 family

Hirschsprung disease is a congenital form of aganglionic megacolon that results from cristopathy. Hirschsprung disease usually occurs as a sporadic disease, although it may be associated with several inherited conditions, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. The rearranged during transfection (RET) proto-oncogene is the major susceptibility gene for Hirschsprung disease, and germline mutations in RET have been reported in up to 50% of the inherited forms of Hirschsprung disease and in 15-20% of sporadic cases of Hirschsprung disease. The prevalence of Hirschsprung disease in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 cases was recently determined to be 7.5% and the cooccurrence of Hirschsprung disease and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 has been reported in at least 22 families so far. It was initially thought that Hirschsprung disease could be due to disturbances in apoptosis or due to a tendency of the mutated RET receptor to be retained in the Golgi apparatus. Presently, there is strong evidence favoring the hypothesis that specific inactivating haplotypes play a key role in the fetal development of congenital megacolon/Hirschsprung disease. In the present study, we report the genetic findings in a novel family with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: a specific RET haplotype was documented in patients with Hirschsprung disease associated with medullary thyroid carcinoma, but it was absent in patients with only medullary thyroid carcinoma. Despite the limited number of cases, the present data favor the hypothesis that specific haplotypes not linked to RET germline mutations are the genetic causes of Hirschsprung disease.

Biochemical, bone and renal patterns in hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1

Primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type I (hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1) differs in many aspects from sporadic hyperparathyroidism, which is the most frequently occurring form of hyperparathyroidism. Bone mineral density has frequently been studied in sporadic hyperparathyroidism but it has very rarely been examined in cases of hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Cortical bone mineral density in hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 cases has only recently been examined, and early, severe and frequent bone mineral losses have been documented at this site. Early bone mineral losses are highly prevalent in the trabecular bone of patients with hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. In summary, bone mineral disease in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1related hyperparathyroidism is an early, frequent and severe disturbance, occurring in both the cortical and trabecular bones. In addition, renal complications secondary to sporadic hyperparathyroidism are often studied, but very little work has been done on this issue in hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. It has been recently verified that early, frequent, and severe renal lesions occur in patients with hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, which may lead to increased morbidity and mortality. In this article we review the few available studies on bone mineral and renal disturbances in the setting of hyperparathyroidism/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. We performed a meta-analysis of the available data on bone mineral and renal disease in cases of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1-related hyperparathyroidism.

Surgical approach to medullary thyroid carcinoma associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2

We briefly review the surgical approaches to medullary thyroid carcinoma associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (medullary thyroid carcinoma/multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2). The recommended surgical approaches are usually based on the age of the affected carrier/patient, tumor staging and the specific rearranged during transfection codon mutation. We have focused mainly on young children with no apparent disease who are carrying a germline rearranged during transfection mutation. Successful management of medullary thyroid carcinoma in these cases depends on early diagnosis and treatment. Total thyroidectomy should be performed before 6 months of age in infants carrying the rearranged during transfection 918 codon mutation, by the age of 3 years in rearranged during transfection 634 mutation carriers, at 5 years of age in carriers with level 3 risk rearranged during transfection mutations, and by the age of 10 years in level 4 risk rearranged during transfection mutations. Patients with thyroid tumor >5 mm detected by ultrasound, and basal calcitonin levels >40 pg/ml, frequently have cervical and upper mediastinal lymph node metastasis. In the latter patients, total thyroidectomy should be complemented by extensive lymph node dissection. Also, we briefly review our data from a large familial medullary thyroid carcinoma genealogy harboring a germline rearranged during transfection Cys620Arg mutation. All 14 screened carriers of the rearranged during transfection Cys620Arg mutation who underwent total thyroidectomy before the age of 12 years presented persistently undetectable serum levels of calcitonin (<2 pg/ml) during the follow-up period of 2-6 years. Although it is recommended that preventive total thyroidectomy in rearranged during transfection codon 620 mutation carriers is performed before the age of 5 years, in this particular family the surgical intervention performed before the age of 12 years led to an apparent biochemical cure.

Post-surgical follow-up of primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1

The bone mineral density increments in patients with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism after parathyroidectomy have been studied by several investigators, but few have investigated this topic in primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Further, as far as we know, only two studies have consistently evaluated bone mineral density values after parathyroidectomy in cases of primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Here we revised the impact of parathyroidectomy (particularly total parathyroidectomy followed by autologous parathyroid implant into the forearm) on bone mineral density values in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Significant increases in bone mineral density in the lumbar spine and femoral neck values were found, although no short-term (15 months) improvement in bone mineral density at the proximal third of the distal radius was observed. Additionally, short-term and medium-term calcium and parathyroid hormone values after parathyroidectomy in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 are discussed. In most cases, this surgical approach was able to restore normal calcium/parathyroid hormone levels and ultimately lead to discontinuation of calcium and calcitriol supplementation.

Isolated familial somatotropinoma: 11Q13-LOH and gene/protein expression analysis suggests a possible involvement of aip also in non-pituitary tumorigenesis

OBJECTIVE: Non-pituitary tumors have been reported in a subset of patients harboring germline mutations in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor-interacting protein (AIP) gene. However, no detailed investigations of non-pituitary tumors of AIP-mutated patients have been reported so far. PATIENTS: We examined a MEN1- and p53-negative mother-daughter pair with acromegaly due to somatotropinoma. Subsequently, the mother developed a large virilizing adrenocortical carcinoma and a grade II B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. DESIGN: Mutational analysis was performed by automated sequencing. Loss-of-heterozygosity (LOH) analysis was carried out by sequencing and microsatellite analysis. AIP expression was assessed through quantitative PCR (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The functional inactivating mutation c.241C>T (R81X), which blocks the AIP protein from interacting with phosphodiesterase 4A (PDE4A), was identified in the heterozygous state in the leukocyte DNA of both patients. Analyzing the tumoral DNA revealed that the AIP wild-type allele was lost in the daughter's somatotropinoma and the mother's adrenocortical carcinoma. Both tumors displayed low AIP protein expression levels. Low AIP gene expression was confirmed by qPCR in the adrenocortical carcinoma. No evidence of LOH was observed in the DNA sample from the mother's B-cell lymphoma, and this tumor displayed normal AIP immunostaining. CONCLUSIONS: Our study presents the first molecular analysis of non-pituitary tumors in AIP-mutated patients. The finding of AIP inactivation in the adrenocortical tumor suggests that further investigation of the potential role of this recently identified tumor suppressor gene in non-pituitary tumors, mainly in those tumors in which the cAMP and the 11q13 locus are implicated, is likely to be worthwhile.

Sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma: clinical data from a university hospital

INTRODUCTION: Medullary thyroid carcinoma may occur in a sporadic (s-medullary thyroid carcinoma, 75 percent) or in a multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 form (MEN2, 25 percent). These clinical forms differ in many ways, as s-medullary thyroid carcinoma cases are RET-negative in the germline and are typically diagnosed later than medullary thyroid carcinoma in MEN2 patients. In this study, a set of cases with s-medullary thyroid carcinoma are documented and explored. PURPOSE: To document the phenotypes observed in s-medullary thyroid carcinoma cases from a university group and to attempt to improve earlier diagnosis of s-medullary thyroid carcinoma. Some procedures for diagnostics are also recommended. METHOD: Patients (n=26) with apparent s-medullary thyroid carcinoma were studied. Their clinical data were reviewed and peripheral blood was collected and screened for RET germline mutations. RESULTS: The average age at diagnosis was 43.9 years (± 10.82 SD) and did not differ between males and females. Calcitonin levels were increased in all cases. Three patients presented values that were 100-fold greater than the normal upper limit. Most (61.54 percent) had values that were 20-fold below this limit. Carcinoembryonic antigen levels were high in 70.6 percent of cases. There was no significant association between age at diagnosis, basal calcitonin levels or time of disease onset with thyroid tumor size (0.6-15 cm). Routine thyroid cytology yielded disappointing diagnostic accuracy (46.7 percent) in this set of cases. After total thyroidectomy associated with extensive cervical lymph node resection, calcitonin values remained lower than 5 pg/mL for at least 12 months in eight of the cases (30.8 percent). Immunocyto- and histochemistry for calcitonin were positive in all analyzed cases. None of the 26 cases presented germline mutations in the classical hotspots of the RET proto-oncogene. CONCLUSION: Our cases were identified late. The basal ...

Hypercalcitoninemia is not pathognomonic of medullary thyroid carcinoma: [revision]

Hypercalcitoninemia has frequently been reported as a marker for medullary thyroid carcinoma. Currently, calcitonin measurements are mostly useful in the evaluation of tumor size and progression, and as an index of biochemical improvement of medullary thyroid carcinomas. Although measurement of calcitonin is a highly sensitive method for the detection of medullary thyroid carcinoma, it presents a low specificity for this tumor. Several physiologic and pathologic conditions other than medullary thyroid carcinoma have been associated with increased levels of calcitonin. Several cases of thyroid nodules associated with increased values of calcitonin are not medullary thyroid carcinomas, but rather are related to other conditions, such as hypercalcemias, hypergastrinemias, neuroendocrine tumors, renal insufficiency, papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas, and goiter. Furthermore, prolonged treatment with omeprazole (> 2-4 months), beta-blockers, glucocorticoids and potential secretagogues, have been associated with hypercalcitoninemia. An association between calcitonin levels and chronic auto-immune thyroiditis remains controversial. Patients with calcitonin levels >100 pg/mL have a high risk for medullary thyroid carcinoma (~90%-100%), whereas patients with values from 10 to 100 pg/mL (normal values: <8.5 pg/mL for men, < 5.0 pg/mL for women; immunochemiluminometric assay) have a <25% risk for medullary thyroid carcinoma. In multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2), RET mutation analysis is the gold-standard for the recommendation of total preventivethyroidectomy to relatives at risk of harboring a germline RET mutation (50%). False-positive calcitonin results within MEN2 families have led to incorrect indications of preventive total thyroidectomy to RET mutation negative relatives. In this review, we focus on the differential diagnosis of hypercalcitoninemia, underlining its importance for the avoidance of misdiagnosis...

Abordagem clínica e laboratorial do bócio uninodular sólido: vantagens da determinaçäo da calcitonina sérica por métodos distintos no rastreamento do carcinoma medular de tireóide, forma esporádica / Clinical and laboratorial approach of solid uninodular goiter: advantage of serum calcitonin determination by different methods in medullar thyroid carcinoma screening, sporadic form

A apresentação clínica mais freqüente da forma esporádica do carcinoma medular da tireóide (CMT) é o bócio uninodular sólido (BUS), apresentação esta semelhante aos demais tumores que afetam a glândula. O estabelecimento da freqüência de CMT em BUS apresenta implicações importantes não só diagnósticas, como também terapêuticas, visto a abordagem cirúrgica do CMT diferir de outros tumores tireoideanos. Para investigar a prevalência de CMT em BUS, dosamos calcitonina (CT) sérica, marcador bioquímico do CMT, por métodos distintos (RIA e IRMA) em 60 casos (55 mulheres; com idades entre 22 e 75 anos). A análise citológica obtida através de punção biópsia (PAAF) revelou 100 por cento de especificidade e 67 por cento de sensibilidade na detecção de carcinoma de tireóide. Considerando-se o grau de suspeita clínica para neoplasia tireoideana e os achados anatomopatológicos, houve 60 por cento de correlação positiva. CMT foi diagnosticado através da elevação da CT sérica em um dos 59 casos (1,69 por cento) e confirmado posteriormente pela PAAF e anatomopatológico. A incidência de CMT entre os casos de neoplasias tireoideanas nesta amostra foi de 12,5 por cento (1/8). Concluímos que a dosagem rotineira da CT sérica em casos com BUS não só complementa o estudo desta doença, como auxilia fortemente no diagnóstico do CMT. Tanto o IRMA como o RIA mostraram-se métodos úteis no rastreamento do CMT. Entretanto, o RIA pode provavelmente detectar ainda mais precocemente a elevação de formas não monoméricas da molécula de CT, as quais nos casos de CMT são usualmente mais abundantes que as formas monoméricas.

Perda do sítio de restriçäo fok-I no codon 918 do proto-oncogenese RET na neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 2B / Fok-1 restriction site loss in codon 918 of RET proto-oncogene in type 2b multiple endocrine neoplasm

Descreveu-se o uso de método simplificado de detecção de perda do sítio de restrição que envolve o codon 918 do protooncogene RET, usando-se digestão direta com a enzima de restrição fok-I. Este método foi aplicado na análise do DNA genômico do sangue periférico de uma paciente com neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 2B (NEM-2B), seus pais e irmão. Descartou-se a existência da mutação nos parentes e confirmou-se padrão eletroforético de DNA compatível com mutação no codon 918 na paciente estudada. Estes achados sugerem que esta mutação tenha ocorrido durante a gametogênese de um dos pais da afetada. Com este método elimina-se a necessidade do seqüenciamento gênico direto, economizando tempo e gastos com o exame. Propõe-se que este procedimento possa ser usado na detecção desta mutação em indivíduos pertencentes ao grupo de risco para NEM-2B, desde que cerca de 93 por cento dos pacientes com esta doença apresentam mutação no codon 918.

Calcitonina: fisiologia e deficiência / Calcitonin: physiology and defficiency

O desenvolvimento e o aprimoramento das técnicas de dosagem da calcitonina sérica (CT) (radioimunoensaio e ensaios imunométricos), os avanços da biologia molecular, abriram novas e interessantes perspectivas, permitindo amplicar o conhecimento acerca da CT, este hormônio tantas vezes dito "sem funçao". Nesta revisao, sao discutidos aspectos históricos, estruturais e moleculares da CT, os métodos de dosagem, a importância e utilidade dos testes provocativos, sobretudo no diagnóstico do câncer medular da tireóide. Além disso, sao abordados os principais aspectos fisiológicos conhecidos, bem como as condiçoes caracterizadas por deficiente reserva secretóia de CT como no hipotireoidismo congênito, na tireoidite crônica autoimune, em pacientes tireoidectomizados e em mulheres no período pós-menopausa.

Detecçäo precoce do carcinoma medular de tireóide / Early detection of the medullary thyroid carcinoma

Vinte e oito parentes de 11 pacientes com carcinoma medular de tiróide (CMT) foram testados, sendo que dois destes 11 pacientes apresentavam neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo II. O teste combinado constou de infusäo endovenosa de 2mg de Ca++/kg de peso por 60seg, seguida imediatamente de infusäo de 0,5mcg de pentagrastrina/kg de peso, por 5seg . A calcitonina (CT) sérica foi dosada aos 0, 2, 5 e 10min. Os valores máximos da CT sérica em indivíduos normais foram considerados como 95 e 350pg/ml, em condiçöes basais e após estímulo, respectivemente. Diante de valores anormalmente elevados de CT durante o primeiro teste, um segundo teste foi realizado para confirmar o diagnóstico de hipersecreçäo do CT. Em dois entre 28 casos, estudados, fêz-se o diagnóstico precoce do CMT pelos níveis excessivemente elevados da CT, visto ser este o marcador específico desta neoplasia. A tireoidectomia total e a limpeza ganglionar preventiva foram indicadas em ambos os casos. Os achados patológicos e da imunocitoquímica confirmaram a presença do CTM nos dois casos. Nestes casos, após a cirurgia, os níveis de CT sérica se mantiveram constantemente normais até o presente (18 meses após a cirurgia). Estes achados reforçam a hipótese de cura do CMT em ambos casos. O feocromocitoma e o hiperparatireoidismo foram investigados nos 28 casos, sendo que em dois o hiperparatiroidismo foi suspeitado e está sob atual investigaçäo. Sumarizando, documentou-se a importància do aprofundamento no estudo de parentes de pacientes com CMT, por meio de dosagem de CT. Este procedimento pode levar ao diagnóstico e tratamento precoces desta neoplasia, permitindo eventual cura do paciente.

Selective IgA deficiency associated with Hunter syndrome

Um menino de oito anos de idade, mulato, com quadro clínico e achados laboratoriais característicos da síndrome de Hunter, foi encaminhado à Universidade de Imunopatologia por apresentar infecçöes respiratórias superiores recorrentes e asma grave. Os exames laboratoriais mostraram número normal de leucócitos periféricos, níveis séricos de IgG e IgM normais. IgA sérica e salivar indetectáveis, títulos de isohemaglutinas séricas normais e teste de Schick negativo. Os testes cutáneos de hipersensibilidade tardia foram positivos para Candidina e Tricofitina e o estudo das subpopulaçöes de linfócitos T e B através de técnicas de imunofluorescência mostrou valores dentro dos limites normais. O defeito de secreçäo de IgA é interpretado como sendo decorrente de um bloqueio no estágio final de maturaçäo das células B e, a associaçäo de deficiência seletiva de IgA com a síndrome de Hunter como sendo uma ocorrência casual