Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: Introduction and methodology / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Introducción y metodología

The Recommendations for Specialized Nutritional Support in Critically-Ill patients were drafted by the Metabolism and Nutrition Working Group of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) in 2005. Given the time elapsed since then, these recommendations have been reviewed and updated as a Consensus Document in collaboration with the Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SENPE). The primary aim of these Recommendations was to evaluate the best available scientific evidence for the indications of specialized nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients. The Recommendations have been formulated by an expert panel with broad experience in nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients and were drafted between October 2009 and March 2011. The studies analyzed encompassed metaanalyses, randomized clinical trials, observational studies, systematic reviews and updates relating to critically-ill adults in MEDLINE from 1966 to 2010, EMBASE reviews from 1991 to 2010 and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews up to 2010. The methodological criteria selected were those established in the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network and the Agency for Health Care policy and Research, as well as those of the Jadad Quality Scale. Adjustment for the level of evidence and grade of recommendation was performed following the proposal of the GRADE group (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Sixteen pathological scenarios were selected and each of them was developed by groups of three experts. A feedback system was established with the five members of the Editorial Committee and with the entire Working Group. All discrepancies were discussed and consensus was reached over several meetings, with special emphasis placed on reviewing the levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. The Editorial Committee made the final adjustments before the document was approved by all the members of the Working Group. Finally, the document was submitted to the Scientific Committees of the two Societies participating in the Consensus for final approval. The present Recommendations aim to serve as a guide for clinicians involved in the management and treatment of critically-ill patients and for any specialists interested in the nutritional treatment of hospitalized patients (AU)

El Grupo de trabajo de Metabolismo y Nutrición de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias (SEMICYUC) elaboró en 2005 unas recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional especializado del paciente crítico. Dado el tiempo transcurrido se consideró oportuno la revisión y actualización de dichas recomendaciones, planificándolas como un documento de consenso con la Sociedad Española de Nutrición parenteral y Enteral (SENpE). El objetivo primario planteado para el establecimiento de las recomendaciones fue evaluar la mejor evidencia científica disponible para las indicaciones del soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado en el paciente crítico. Las recomendaciones se han realizado por un panel de expertos con amplia experiencia en el soporte nutricional y metabólico de los pacientes en situación crítica y se han llevado a cabo entre octubre de 2009 y marzo de 2011. Se analizaron metaanálisis, estudios clínicos aleatorizados y observacionales, revisiones sistemáticas y puestas al día referentes a pacientes críticos en edad adulta en MEDLINE de 1966 a 2010, EMBASE reviews de 1991 a 2010 y Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews hasta 2010. Se seleccionaron los criterios metodológicos establecidos en la Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network y los de la Agency for Health Care policy and Research, además de la escala de valoración de la calidad de Jadad, ajustando la gradación de la evidencia y la potencia de las recomendaciones siguiendo la propuesta del Grupo GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Se seleccionaron 16 situaciones patológicas que fueron desarrolladas, cada una, por grupos de 3 expertos, estableciéndose un sistema de feedback con los 5 miembros del Comité de Redacción y con la totalidad del Grupo de trabajo. En diferentes reuniones se discutieron y consensuaron todas las discrepancias, poniéndose especial énfasis en el repaso de los niveles de evidencia y grados de recomendación establecidos. El Comité de Redacción procedió al ajuste final para su presentación y aprobación definitiva por todos los miembros del Grupo de trabajo. Finalmente el documento se presentó a los comités científicos de las dos sociedades participantes del consenso para su aprobación definitiva. Las presentes recomendaciones pretenden servir de guía para los clínicos con responsabilidades en el manejo y tratamiento de los pacientes críticos y para todos los especialistas interesados en el tratamiento nutricional del paciente hospitalizado (AU)

Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: Liver failure and liver transplantation / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Insuficiencia hepática y trasplante hepático

Patients with liver failure have a high prevalence ofmalnutrition, which is related to metabolic abnormalitiesdue to the liver disease, reduced nutrient intake andaltera tions in digestive function, among other factors.In general, in patients with liver failure, metabolic andnutritional support should aim to provide adequate nutrientintake and, at the same time, to contribute to patients’recovery through control or reversal of metabolic altera -tions. In critically-ill patients with liver failure, currentknowledge indicates that the organ failure is not the mainfactor to be considered when choosing the nutritionalregi men. As in other critically-ill patients, the enteralroute should be used whenever possible.The composition of the nutritional formula should beadapted to the patient’s metabolic stress.Despite the physiopathological basis classicallydescribed by some authors who consider amino acidimbalance to be a triggering factor and key element inmaintaining encephalopathy, there are insufficient datato recommend “specific” solutions (branched-chainamino acid-enriched with low aromatic amino acids) aspart of nutritional support in patients with acute liverfailure.In patients undergoing liver transplantation, nutrientintake should be started early in the postoperative periodthrough transpyloric access. Prevention of the hepatic alterations associated withnutritional support should also be considered in distinctclinical scenarios (AU)

Los pacientes con insuficiencia hepática presentan unaelevada prevalencia de malnutrición. Ésta se encuentrarelacionada, entre otros factores, con las alteraciones delmetabolismo derivadas de la enfermedad hepática, la disminución en la ingesta de nutrientes y las alteraciones enla función digestiva.De modo general, en los pacientes con insuficienciahepática, el soporte metabólico-nutricional debe tenercomo objetivo el aporte adecuado de los requerimientoscontribuyendo, al mismo tiempo, a la recuperación de lospacientes mediante el control o la reversión de las alteraciones metabólicas apreciadas. En los pacientes críticosque presentan insuficiencia hepática, los conocimientosactuales indican que ésta no parece ser un factor fundamental a la hora de considerar la pauta nutricional. Comoen otros pacientes críticos, la vía de aporte de nutrientesdebe ser la enteral, siempre que ello sea posible.La composición de la fórmula nutricional debe estaradaptada a la situación de estrés metabólico. A pesar de labase fisiopatológica, clásicamente descrita por algunosautores, que considera al disbalance de aminoácidos unfactor desencadenante y mantenedor de la encefalopatía,no hay datos suficientes para recomendar el empleo desoluciones “específicas” (enriquecidas en aminoácidosramificados y pobres en aminoácidos aromáticos) comoparte del soporte nutricional en los pacientes con insuficiencia hepática aguda.En los pacientes sometidos a trasplante hepático, elaporte de nutrientes debería iniciarse de manera precozen el postoperatorio mediante una vía de acceso transpilórica. La prevención de las alteraciones hepáticas asociadas al soporte nutricional debe ser también consideradaen diferentes situaciones clínicas (AU)

Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: Obese patient / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Paciente obeso

As a response to metabolic stress, obese critically-ill patients have the same risk of nutritional deficiency as the non-obese and can develop protein-energy malnutrition with accelerated loss of muscle mass. The primary aim of nutritional support in these patients should be to minimize loss of lean mass and accurately evaluate energy expenditure. However, routinely used formulae can overestimate calorie requirements if the patient's actual weight is used. Consequently, the use of adjusted or ideal weight is recommended with these formulae, although indirect calorimetry is the method of choice. Controversy surrounds the question of whether a strict nutritional support criterion, adjusted to the patient's requirements, should be applied or whether a certain degree of hyponutrition should be allowed. Current evidence suggested that hypocaloric nutrition can improve results, partly due to a lower rate of infectious complications and better control of hyperglycemia. Therefore, hypocaloric and hyperproteic nutrition, whether enteral or parenteral, should be standard practice in the nutritional support of critically-ill obese patients when not contraindicated. Widely accepted recommendations consist of no more than 60-70% of requirements or administration of 11-14 kcal/kg current body weight/day or 22-25 kcal/kg ideal weight/day, with 2-2.5 g/kg ideal weight/day of proteins. In a broad sense, hypocaloric-hyperprotein regimens can be considered specific to obese critically-ill patients, although the complications related to comorbidities in these patients may require other therapeutic possibilities to be considered, with specific nutrients for hyperglycemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. Howe - ver, there are no prospective randomized trials with this type of nutrition in this specific population subgroup and the available data are drawn from the general population of critically-ill patients. Consequently, caution should be exercised when interpreting these data (AU)

El paciente obeso crítico, como respuesta al estrés metabólico, tiene igual riesgo de depleción nutricional que el paciente no obeso, pudiendo desarrollar una malnutrición energeticoproteica,con una acelerada degradación de masa muscular. El primer objetivo del soporte nutricional en estos pacientes debe ser minimizar la pérdida de masa magra y realizar una evaluación adecuada del gasto energético. Sin embargo, la aplicación de las fórmulas habituales para el cálculo de las necesidades calóricas puede sobrestimarlas si se utiliza el peso real, por lo que sería más correcto su aplicación con el peso ajustado o el peso ideal, aunque la alorimetría indirecta es el método de elección. La controversia se centra en si hay que aplicar un criterio estricto de soporte nutricional ajustado a los requerimientos o se aplica un cierto grado de hiponutrición permisiva. La evidencia actual sugiere que la nutrición hipocalórica puede mejorar los resultados, en parte debido a una menor tasa de complicaciones infecciosas y a un mejor control de la hiperglucemia, por lo que la nutrición hipocalórica e hiperproteica, tanto enteral como parenteral, debe ser la práctica estándar en el soporte nutricional del paciente obeso crítico si no hay contraindicaciones para ello. Las recomendaciones generalmente admitidas se centran en no exceder el 60-70% de los requerimientos o administrar 11-14 o 22-25 kcal/kg peso ideal/día, con 2-2,5 g/kg peso ideal/día de proteínas. En sentido amplio puede considerarse la nutrición hipocalórica-hiperproteica como específica del paciente obeso crítico, aunque las complicaciones ligadas a su comorbilidad hace que se planteen otras posibilidades terapéuticas, con nutrientes específicos para hiperglucemia, síndrome del distrés respiratorio agudo (SDRA) y sepsis. Sin embargo, no existe ningún estudio prospectivo y aleatorio con este tipo de nutrientes en este subgrupo concreto de población y los datos de que disponemos se extraen de una población general de pacientes críticos, por lo que deben tomarse con mucha precaución (AU)

Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Introducción y metodología / Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): Introduction and methodology

El Grupo de Trabajo de Metabolismo y Nutrición de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias (SEMICYUC) elaboró en 2005 unas recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional especializado del paciente crítico. Dado el tiempo transcurrido se consideró oportuno la revisión y actualización de dichas recomendaciones, planificándolas como un documento de consenso con la Sociedad Española de Nutrición Parenteral y Enteral (SENPE). El objetivo primario planteado para el establecimiento de las recomendaciones fue evaluar la mejor evidencia científica disponible para las indicaciones del soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado en el paciente crítico. Las recomendaciones se han realizado por un panel de expertos con amplia experiencia en el soporte nutricional y metabólico de los pacientes en situación crítica y se han llevado a cabo entre octubre de 2009 y marzo de 2011. Se analizaron metaanálisis, estudios clínicos aleatorizados y observacionales, revisiones sistemáticas y puestas al día referentes a pacientes críticos en edad adulta en MEDLINE de 1966 a 2010, EMBASE reviews de 1991 a 2010 y Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews hasta 2010. Se seleccionaron los criterios medotodológicos establecidos en la Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network y los de la Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, además de la escala de valoración de la calidad de Jadad, ajustando la gradación de la evidencia y la potencia de las recomendaciones siguiendo la propuesta del Grupo GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Se seleccionaron 16 situaciones patológicas que fueron desarrolladas, cada una, por grupos de 3 expertos, estableciéndose un sistema de feedback con los 5 miembros del Comité de Redacción y con la totalidad del Grupo de Trabajo. En diferentes reuniones se discutieron y consensuaron todas las discrepancias, poniéndose especial énfasis en el repaso de los niveles de evidencia y grados de recomendación establecidos. El Comité de Redacción procedió al ajuste final para su presentación y aprobación definitiva por todos los miembros del Grupo de Trabajo. Finalmente, el documento se presentó a los comités científicos de las dos sociedades participantes del consenso para su aprobación definitiva. Las presentes recomendaciones pretenden servir de guía para los clínicos con responsabilidades en el manejo y tratamiento de los pacientes críticos y para todos los especialistas interesados en el tratamiento nutricional del paciente hospitalizado (AU)

The Recommendations for Specialized Nutritional Support in Critically-Ill patients were drafted by the Metabolism and Nutrition Working Group of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) in 2005. Given the time elapsed since then, these recommendations have been reviewed and updated as a Consensus Document in collaboration with the Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SENPE). The primary aim of these Recommendations was to evaluate the best available scientific evidence for the indications of specialized nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients. The Recommendations have been formulated by an expert panel with broad experience in nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients and were drafted between October 2009 and March 2011. The studies analyzed encompassed metaanalyses, randomized clinical trials, observational studies, systematic reviews and updates relating to critically-ill adults in MEDLINE from 1966 to 2010, EMBASE reviews from 1991 to 2010 and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews up to 2010. The methodological criteria selected were those established in the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network and the Agency for Health Care policy and Research, as well as those of the Jadad Quality Scale. Adjustment for the level of evidence and grade of recommendation was performed following the proposal of the GRADE group (Grading of RecommendationsAssessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Sixteen pathological scenarios were selected and each of them was developed by groups of three experts. A feedback system was established with the five members of the Editorial Committee and with the entire Working Group. All discrepancies were discussed and consensus was reached over several meetings, with special emphasis placed on reviewing the levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. The Editorial Committee made the final adjustments before the document was approved by all the members of the Working Group. Finally, the document was submitted to the Scientiic Committees of the two Societies participating in the Consensus for final approval. The present Recommedations aim to serve as a guide for clinicians involved in the management and treatment of critically-ill patients and for any specialists interested in the nutritional treatment of hospitalized patients (AU)

Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Insuiciencia hepática y trasplante hepático / Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): Liver failure and transplantation

Los pacientes con insuficiencia hepática presentan una elevada prevalencia de malnutrición. Ésta se encuentra relacionada, entre otros factores, con las alteraciones del metabolismo derivadas de la enfermedad hepática, la disminución en la ingesta de nutrientes y las alteraciones en la función digestiva. De modo general, en los pacientes con insuficiencia hepática, el soporte metabólico-nutricional debe tener como objetivo el aporte adecuado de los requerimientos contribuyendo, al mismo tiempo, a la recuperación de los pacientes mediante el control o la reversión de las alteraciones metabólicas apreciadas. En los pacientes críticos que presentan insuficiencia hepática, los conocimientos actuales indican que ésta no parece ser un factor fundamental a la hora de considerar la pauta nutricional. Como en otros pacientes críticos, la vía de aporte de nutrientes debe ser la enteral, siempre que ello sea posible. La composición de la fórmula nutricional debe estar adaptada a la situación de estrés metabólico. A pesar de la base isiopatológica, clásicamente descrita por algunos autores, que considera al disbalance de aminoácidos un factor desencadenante y mantenedor de la encefalopatía, no hay datos suficientes para recomendar el empleo de soluciones “específicas” (enriquecidas en aminoácidos ramificados y pobres en aminoácidos aromáticos) como parte del soporte nutricional en los pacientes con insuficiencia hepática aguda. En los pacientes sometidos a trasplante hepático, el aporte de nutrientes debería iniciarse de manera precoz en el postoperatorio mediante una vía de acceso transpilórica. La prevención de las alteraciones hepáticas asociadas al soporte nutricional debe ser también considerada en diferentes situaciones clínicas (AU)

Patients with liver failure have a high prevalence of malnutrition, which is related to metabolic abnormalities due to the liver disease, reduced nutrient intake and alterations in digestive function, among other factors. In general, in patients with liver failure, metabolic and nutritional support should aim to provide adequate nutrient intake and, at the same time, to contribute to patients’ recovery through control or reversal of metabolic alterations. In critically-ill patients with liver failure, current knowledge indicates that the organ failure is not the main factor to be considered when choosing the nutritional regimen. As in other critically-ill patients, the enteral route should be used whenever possible. The composition of the nutritional formula should be adapted to the patient’s metabolic stress. Despite the physiopathological basis classically described by some authors who consider amino acid imbalance to be a triggering factor and key element in maintaining encephalopathy, there are insuficient data to recommend “specific” solutions (branched-chain amino acid-enriched with low aromatic amino acids) aspart of nutritional support in patients with acute liver failure. In patients undergoing liver transplantation, nutrient intake should be started early in the postoperative period through transpyloric access. Prevention of the hepatic alterations associated with nutritional support should also be considered in distinct clinical scenarios (AU)

Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: Paciente obeso / Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically ill-patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): Obese patient

El paciente obeso crítico, como respuesta al estrés metabólico, tiene igual riesgo de depleción nutricional que el paciente no obeso, pudiendo desarrollar una malnutrición energeticoproteica, con una acelerada degradación de masa muscular. El primer objetivo del soporte nutricional en estos pacientes debe ser minimizar la pérdida de masa magra y realizar una evaluación adecuada del gasto energético. Sin embargo, la aplicación de las fórmulas habituales para el cálculo de las necesidades calóricas puede sobrestimarlas si se utiliza el peso real, por lo que sería más correcto su aplicación con el peso ajustado o el peso ideal, aunque la calorimetría indirecta es el método de elección. La controversia se centra en si hay que aplicar un criterio estricto de soporte nutricional ajustado a los requerimientos o se aplica un cierto grado de hiponutrición permisiva. La evidencia actual sugiere que la nutrición hipocalórica puede mejorar los resultados, en parte debido a una menor tasa de complicaciones infecciosas y a un mejor control de la hiperglucemia, por lo que la nutrición hipocalórica e hiperproteica, tanto enteral como parenteral, debe ser la práctica estándar en el soporte nutricional del paciente obeso crítico si no hay contraindicaciones para ello. Las recomendaciones generalmente admitidas se centran en no exceder el 60-70% de los requerimientos o administrar 11-14 o 22-25 kcal/kg peso ideal/día, con 2-2,5 g/kg peso ideal/día de proteínas. En sentido amplio puede considerarse la nutrición hipocalórica-hiperproteica como específica del paciente obeso crítico, aunque las complicaciones ligadas a su comorbilidad hace que se planteen otras posibilidades terapéuticas, con nutrientes específicos para hiperglucemia, síndrome del distrés respiratorio agudo (SDRA) y sepsis. Sin embargo, no existe ningún estudio prospectivo y aleatorio con este tipo de nutrientes en este subgrupo concreto de población y los datos de que disponemos se extraen de una población general de pacientes críticos, por lo que deben tomarse con mucha precaución (AU)

As a response to metabolic stress, obese critically-ill patients have the same risk of nutritional deficiency as the non-obese and can develop protein-energy malnutrition with accelerated loss of muscle mass. The primary aim of nutritional support in these patients should be to minimize loss of lean mass and accurately evaluate energy expenditure. However, routinely-used formulae can overestimate calorie requirements if the patient’s actual weight is used. Consequently, the use of adjusted or ideal weight is recommended with these formulae, although indirect calorimetry is the method of choice. Controversy surrounds the question of whether a strict nutritional support criterion, adjusted to the patient’s requirements, should be applied or whether a certain degree of hyponutrition should be allowed. Current evidence suggested that hypocaloric nutrition can improve results, partly due to a lower rate of infectious complications and better control of hyperglycemia. Therefore, hypocaloric and hyperproteic nutrition, whether enteral or parenteral, should be standard practice in the nutritional support of critically-ill obese patients when not contraindicated. Widely accepted recommendations consist of no more than 60-70% of requirements or administration of 11-14 kcal/kg current body weight/day or 22-25 kcal/kg ideal weight/day, with 2-2.5 g/kg ideal weight/ day of proteins. In a broad sense, hypocaloric-hyperprotein regimens can be considered specific to obese critically-ill patients, although the complications related to comorbidities in these patients may require other therapeutic possibilities to be considered, with specific nutrients for hyperglycemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. However, there are no prospective randomized trials with this type of nutrition in this specific population subgroup and the available data are drawn from the general population of critically-ill patients. Consequently, caution should be exercised when interpreting these data (AU)

[Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): introduction and methodology]. / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: introducción y metodología.

The Recommendations for Specialized Nutritional Support in Critically-Ill patients were drafted by the Metabolism and Nutrition Working Group of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) in 2005. Given the time elapsed since then, these recommendations have been reviewed and updated as a Consensus Document in collaboration with the Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SENPE). The primary aim of these Recommendations was to evaluate the best available scientific evidence for the indications of specialized nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients. The Recommendations have been formulated by an expert panel with broad experience in nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients and were drafted between October 2009 and March 2011. The studies analyzed encompassed metaanalyses, randomized clinical trials, observational studies, systematic reviews and updates relating to critically-ill adults in MEDLINE from 1966 to 2010, EMBASE reviews from 1991 to 2010 and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews up to 2010. The methodological criteria selected were those established in the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network and the Agency for Health Care policy and Research, as well as those of the Jadad Quality Scale. Adjustment for the level of evidence and grade of recommendation was performed following the proposal of the GRADE group (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Sixteen pathological scenarios were selected and each of them was developed by groups of three experts. A feedback system was established with the five members of the Editorial Committee and with the entire Working Group. All discrepancies were discussed and consensus was reached over several meetings, with special emphasis placed on reviewing the levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. The Editorial Committee made the final adjustments before the document was approved by all the members of the Working Group. Finally, the document was submitted to the Scientific Committees of the two Societies participating in the Consensus for final approval. The present Recommendations aim to serve as a guide for clinicians involved in the management and treatment of critically-ill patients and for any specialists interested in the nutritional treatment of hospitalized patients.

[Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): liver failure and transplantation]. / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: insuficiencia hepática y trasplante hepático.

Patients with liver failure have a high prevalence of malnutrition, which is related to metabolic abnormalities due to the liver disease, reduced nutrient intake and alterations in digestive function, among other factors. In general, in patients with liver failure, metabolic and nutritional support should aim to provide adequate nutrient intake and, at the same time, to contribute to patients' recovery through control or reversal of metabolic alterations. In critically-ill patients with liver failure, current knowledge indicates that the organ failure is not the main factor to be considered when choosing the nutritional regimen. As in other critically-ill patients, the enteral route should be used whenever possible. The composition of the nutritional formula should be adapted to the patient's metabolic stress. Despite the physiopathological basis classically described by some authors who consider amino acid imbalance to be a triggering factor and key element in maintaining encephalopathy, there are insufficient data to recommend "specific" solutions (branched-chain amino acid-enriched with low aromatic amino acids) as part of nutritional support in patients with acute liver failure. In patients undergoing liver transplantation, nutrient intake should be started early in the postoperative period through transpyloric access. Prevention of the hepatic alterations associated with nutritional support should also be considered in distinct clinical scenarios.

[Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically ill-patient. Update. Consensus of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units-Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SEMICYUC-SENPE): obese patient]. / Recomendaciones para el soporte nutricional y metabólico especializado del paciente crítico. Actualización. Consenso SEMICYUC-SENPE: paciente obeso.

As a response to metabolic stress, obese critically-ill patients have the same risk of nutritional deficiency as the non-obese and can develop protein-energy malnutrition with accelerated loss of muscle mass. The primary aim of nutritional support in these patients should be to minimize loss of lean mass and accurately evaluate energy expenditure. However, routinely-used formulae can overestimate calorie requirements if the patient's actual weight is used. Consequently, the use of adjusted or ideal weight is recommended with these formulae, although indirect calorimetry is the method of choice. Controversy surrounds the question of whether a strict nutritional support criterion, adjusted to the patient's requirements, should be applied or whether a certain degree of hyponutrition should be allowed. Current evidence suggested that hypocaloric nutrition can improve results, partly due to a lower rate of infectious complications and better control of hyperglycemia. Therefore, hypocaloric and hyperproteic nutrition, whether enteral or parenteral, should be standard practice in the nutritional support of critically-ill obese patients when not contraindicated. Widely accepted recommendations consist of no more than 60-70% of requirements or administration of 11-14 kcal/kg current body weight/day or 22-25 kcal/kg ideal weight/day, with 2-2.5 g/kg ideal weight/day of proteins. In a broad sense, hypocaloric-hyperprotein regimens can be considered specific to obese critically-ill patients, although the complications related to comorbidities in these patients may require other therapeutic possibilities to be considered, with specific nutrients for hyperglycemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. However, there are no prospective randomized trials with this type of nutrition in this specific population subgroup and the available data are drawn from the general population of critically-ill patients. Consequently, caution should be exercised when interpreting these data.

Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient: update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: introduction and methodology.

The Recommendations for Specialized Nutritional Support in Critically-Ill patients were drafted by the Metabolism and Nutrition Working Group of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) in 2005. Given the time elapsed since then, these recommendations have been reviewed and updated as a Consensus Document in collaboration with the Spanish Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (SENPE). The primary aim of these Recommendations was to evaluate the best available scientific evidence for the indications of specialized nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients. The Recommendations have been formulated by an expert panel with broad experience in nutritional and metabolic support in critically-ill patients and were drafted between October 2009 and March 2011. The studies analyzed encompassed metaanalyses, randomized clinical trials, observational studies, systematic reviews and updates relating to critically-ill adults in MEDLINE from 1966 to 2010, EMBASE reviews from 1991 to 2010 and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews up to 2010. The methodological criteria selected were those established in the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network and the Agency for Health Care policy and Research, as well as those of the Jadad Quality Scale. Adjustment for the level of evidence and grade of recommendation was performed following the proposal of the GRADE group (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group). Sixteen pathological scenarios were selected and each of them was developed by groups of three experts. A feedback system was established with the five members of the Editorial Committee and with the entire Working Group. All discrepancies were discussed and consensus was reached over several meetings, with special emphasis placed on reviewing the levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. The Editorial Committee made the final adjustments before the document was approved by all the members of the Working Group. Finally, the document was submitted to the Scientific Committees of the two Societies participating in the Consensus for final approval. The present Recommendations aim to serve as a guide for clinicians involved in the management and treatment of critically-ill patients and for any specialists interested in the nutritional treatment of hospitalized patients.

Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient: update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: liver failure and liver transplantation.

Patients with liver failure have a high prevalence of malnutrition, which is related to metabolic abnormalities due to the liver disease, reduced nutrient intake and alterations in digestive function, among other factors. In general, in patients with liver failure, metabolic and nutritional support should aim to provide adequate nutrient intake and, at the same time, to contribute to patients' recovery through control or reversal of metabolic alterations. In critically-ill patients with liver failure, current knowledge indicates that the organ failure is not the main factor to be considered when choosing the nutritional regimen. As in other critically-ill patients, the enteral route should be used whenever possible. The composition of the nutritional formula should be adapted to the patient's metabolic stress. Despite the physiopathological basis classically described by some authors who consider amino acid imbalance to be a triggering factor and key element in maintaining encephalopathy, there are insufficient data to recommend "specific" solutions (branched-chain amino acid-enriched with low aromatic amino acids) as part of nutritional support in patients with acute liver failure. In patients undergoing liver transplantation, nutrient intake should be started early in the postoperative period through transpyloric access. Prevention of the hepatic alterations associated with nutritional support should also be considered in distinct clinical scenarios.

Guidelines for specialized nutritional and metabolic support in the critically-ill patient: update. Consensus SEMICYUC-SENPE: obese patient.

As a response to metabolic stress, obese critically-ill patients have the same risk of nutritional deficiency as the non-obese and can develop protein-energy malnutrition with accelerated loss of muscle mass. The primary aim of nutritional support in these patients should be to minimize loss of lean mass and accurately evaluate energy expenditure. However, routinely used formulae can overestimate calorie requirements if the patient's actual weight is used. Consequently, the use of adjusted or ideal weight is recommended with these formulae, although indirect calorimetry is the method of choice. Controversy surrounds the question of whether a strict nutritional support criterion, adjusted to the patient's requirements, should be applied or whether a certain degree of hyponutrition should be allowed. Current evidence suggested that hypocaloric nutrition can improve results, partly due to a lower rate of infectious complications and better control of hyperglycemia. Therefore, hypocaloric and hyperproteic nutrition, whether enteral or parenteral, should be standard practice in the nutritional support of critically-ill obese patients when not contraindicated. Widely accepted recommendations consist of no more than 60-70% of requirements or administration of 11-14 kcal/kg current body weight/day or 22-25 kcal/kg ideal weight/day, with 2-2.5 g/kg ideal weight/day of proteins. In a broad sense, hypocaloric-hyperprotein regimens can be considered specific to obese critically-ill patients, although the complications related to comorbidities in these patients may require other therapeutic possibilities to be considered, with specific nutrients for hyperglycemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. However, there are no prospective randomized trials with this type of nutrition in this specific population subgroup and the available data are drawn from the general population of critically-ill patients. Consequently, caution should be exercised when interpreting these data.

Gastric residual volume during enteral nutrition in ICU patients: the REGANE study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of increasing the limit for gastric residual volume (GRV) in the adequacy of enteral nutrition. Frequency of gastrointestinal complications and outcome variables were secondary goals. DESIGN: An open, prospective, randomized study. SETTING: Twenty-eight intensive care units in Spain. PATIENTS: Three hundred twenty-nine intubated and mechanically ventilated adult patients with enteral nutrition (EN). INTERVENTIONS: EN was administered by nasogastric tube. A protocol for management of EN-related gastrointestinal complications was used. Patients were randomized to be included in a control (GRV = 200 ml) or in study group (GRV = 500 ml). MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Diet volume ratio (diet received/diet prescribed), incidence of gastrointestinal complications, ICU-acquired pneumonia, days on mechanical ventilation and ICU length of stay were the study variables. Gastrointestinal complications were higher in the control group (63.6 vs. 47.8%, P = 0.004), but the only difference was in the frequency of high GRV (42.4 vs. 26.8%, P = 0.003). The diet volume ratio was higher for the study group only during the 1st week (84.48 vs. 88.20%) (P = 0.0002). Volume ratio was similar for both groups in weeks 3 and 4. Duration of mechanical ventilation, ICU length of stay or frequency of pneumonia were similar. CONCLUSIONS: Diet volume ratio of mechanically ventilated patients treated with enteral nutrition is not affected by increasing the limit in GRV. A limit of 500 ml is not associated with adverse effects in gastrointestinal complications or in outcome variables. A value of 500 ml can be equally recommended as a normal limit for GRV.

[Liver cirrhosis and encephalopathy: clinical and metabolic consequences and nutritional support]. / Cirrosis y encefalopatía hepáticas: consecuencias clínico-metabólicas y soporte nutricional.

Cirrhosis represents the final stage of many chronic liver diseases and is associated to more or less pronounced hyponutrition, independently of the etiology, particularly at advanced stages. Its origin is multifactorial, with three factors contributing to it: a) limitation or decrease of intake; b) impairment in nutrients digestion or absorption; and c) the interference with nutrients metabolism. A poor nutritional status is associated with a poor survival prognosis. Whether caloric-protein malnourishment (CPM) is an independent predictor of mortality or only a marker of the severity of liver failure is subject to controversy. There is no consensus on which are the best diagnostic criteria for CPM in cirrhosis. Assessment of hyponutrition is extremely difficult since both the disease itself and the triggering or etiologic factors affect many of the parameters used. Metabolic impairments mimic a hypercatabolic state. These patients have decreased carbohydrate utilization and storage capacity and increased protein and fat catabolism leading to depletion of protein and lipid reserves. These abnormalities together with decreased nutrients intake and absorption are the bases for CPM. The most important metabolic impairment in patients with advanced liver disease is the change in amino acids metabolism. The plasma levels of branched amino acids (BAA) are decreased and of aromatic amino acids (AAA) are increased, which has therapeutic implications. Among the consequences of the structural impairments taking place in cirrhosis, we may highlight hepatic encephalopathy, defined as impaired central nervous system functioning that manifests as a series of neuropsychiatric, neuromuscular, and behavioral symptoms. These are due to the inability of the diseased liver to metabolize neurotoxins that accumulate in the brain affecting neurotransmitters and are attributed to the toxic effect of ammonium on the brain tissue. Nutritional therapy brings benefits in the different stages of the disease. In the short term, it improves nitrogen balance, decreases the hospital stay, and improves liver function. In the long term, it decreases the incidence and severity of encephalopathy and improves quality of life. Supplementation with enteral nutrition may improve protein intake, decrease the frequency of hospitalization, and improve the nutritional status, the immune function and the disease severity. Protein restriction is not indicated in compensated cirrhosis. A diet containing about 30 kcal/kg/d and 1.2 g of protein/kg/d is recommended. In acute encephalopathy temporary protein restriction may be needed, which should not last longer than 48 h and be minimized since even in patients with liver disease better outcomes are obtained without obtaining severe protein restriction. Oral supplementation with BAA slows the progression of liver disease and improves survival and quality of life. Supplementation should be done with fiber or diets with vegetable proteins, which bring high fiber content and less AAA, or either with dairy proteins in addition to a high ratio/nitrogen ratio.

Cirrosis y encefalopatía hepáticas: consecuencias clínico-metabólicas y soporte nutricional / Liver cirrhosis and encephalopathy: Clinical and metabolic consequences and nutritional support

La cirrosis representa el estadio final de muchas enfermedades crónicas del hígado y se asocia con malnutrición en mayor o menor grado, con independencia de su etiología, sobre todo en los estadios avanzados. Su origen es multifactorial, pudiendo señalarse tres factores que contribuyen a ella: a) la limitación o disminución de la ingesta; b) la alteración de la digestión y absorción de nutrientes; c) la interferencia en el metabolismo de los nutrientes. Un pobre estado nutricional se asocia con un peor pronóstico de supervivencia. Si la malnutrición calórico- proteica (MCP) es un predictor independiente de mortalidad o solo un reflejo de la severidad de la insuficiencia hepática, es algo que está sujeto a controversia. No hay consenso sobre cuales son los mejores criterios diagnósticos de MCP en la cirrosis. La evaluación de la malnutrición es extremadamente difícil puesto que muchos de los parámetros utilizados se afectan tanto por la enfermedad en sí como por los factores desencadenantes o etiológicos. Las alteraciones metabólicas remedan un estado hipercatabólico. Estos pacientes tienen una disminuida utilización y capacidad de almacenamiento de carbohidratos y un aumento del catabolismo proteico y graso, que conduce a la depleción de las reservas proteicas y lipídicas. Estas anormalidades, combinadas con un descenso en la ingesta y en la absorción de nutrientes, constituyen las bases de la MCP. La alteración metabólica más importante de los pacientes con enfermedad hepática avanzada es el cambio en el metabolismo de los aminoácidos. Los niveles plasmáticos de los aminoácidos de cadena ramificada (AARR) están disminuidos y los niveles de aminoácidos aromáticos (AAA) elevados, lo que tiene implicaciones terapéuticas. Entre las consecuencias de las alteraciones estructurales en la cirrosis, destaca el desarrollo de encefalopatía hepática, definida como una alteración en la función del sistema nervioso central que refleja una serie de manifestaciones neuropsiquiátricas, neuromusculares y de conducta. Se debe a la incapacidad del hígado enfermo para la metabolización de las neurotoxinas quese acumulan en el cerebro y que afectan a los neurotransmisores, atribuido al efecto tóxico del amonio sobre el tejido cerebral. (...)

Cirrhosis represents the final stage of many chronic liver diseases and is associated to more or less pronounced hyponutrition, independently of the etiology, particularly at advanced stages. Its origin is multifactorial, with three factors contributing to it: a) limitation or decrease of intake; b) impairment in nutrients digestion or absorption; and c) the interference with nutrients metabolism. A poor nutritional status is associated with a poor survival prognosis. Whether caloric-protein malnourishment (CPM) is an independent predictor of mortality or only a marker of the severity of liver failure is subject to controversy. There is no consensus on which are the best diagnostic criteria for CPM in cirrhosis. Assessment of hyponutrition is extremely difficult since both the disease itself and the triggering or etiologic factors affect many of the parameters used. Metabolic impairments mimic a hypercatabolic state. These patients have decreased carbohydrate utilization and storage capacity and increased protein and fat catabolism leading to depletion of protein and lipid reserves. These abnormalities together with decreased nutrients intake and absorption are the bases for CPM. The most important metabolic impairment in patients with advanced liver disease is the change in amino acids metabolism. The plasma levels of branched amino acids (BAA) are decreased and of aromatic amino acids (AAA) are increased, which has therapeutic implications. Among the consequences of the structural impairments taking place in cirrhosis, we may highlight hepatic encephalopathy, defined as impaired central nervous system functioning that manifests as a series of neuropsychiatric, neuromuscular, and behavioral symptoms. These are due to the inability of the diseased liver to metabolize neurotoxins that accumulate in the brain affecting neurotransmitters and are attributed to the toxic effect of ammonium on the brain tissue. Nutritional therapy brings benefits in the differentstages of the disease. In the short term, it improves nitrogen balance, decreases the hospital stay, and improves liver function. In the long term, it decreases the incidence and severity of encephalopathy and improves quality of life. Supplementation with enteral nutrition may improve protein intake, decrease the frequency of hospitalization

[Enteral access and intestinal function assessment in the critically ill patient]. / Acceso enteral y evaluación de la función intestinal en el paciente crítico.

The use of enteral nutrition (EN) in the critically-ill patient makes necessary to evaluate its effectiveness and impact on achieving the target requirements. Gastrically administered EN has a high complication rate, especially increased residue that leads to hyponutrition. The use of the small bowel (jejunum) may achieve greater administered volume, although there are three aspects that directly influence on its use: intestinal access route, motility and absorptive capability, and barrier function. The selection of the access route to the digestive tube has to be done after evaluating the underlying disease and predicted duration of EN. If it is greater than 4-6 weeks a definitive access will be performed through an invasive technique of ostomy (radiologic, endoscopic or surgical jejunostomy) and if it is shorter than 4-6 weeks, an endoscopic, fluoroscopic or ultrasonographic non-invasive or transnasal technique (naso-duodenal, or nasojejunal) will be used. By protocoling procedures and experiences, it has been shown that jejunal nutrition may achieve an increase in the amount of requirements administerd to critically-ill patients with mechanical ventilation as compared to gastric feeding, although the benefits with regards to reducing the number of infectious complications, hospital stay and mortality are not so clear-cut, so that it should be left to those cases in which gastric feeding has been clearly documented. By using the manometrich technique or the acetaminophen absorption tests it has been shown that 50% of critically-ill patients with mechanical ventilation have gastric antral hypomotility with decreased migratory motor complexes and gastric voiding, which considerably hampers nutrition. Under normal circumstances, during fasting, there are regular motor contractions, or an inter-digestive migratory motor complex which pattern prevents nutrient absorption because of being highly propulsive, so that during the nutrient phase, this pattern changes into the postprandial pattern with an irregular and continuous contraction activity, with no activity centers, which is much more adapted to nutrient absorption. In critically-ill patients, this normal propulsive pattern is lost, the postprandial pattern is frequently lost, and the inter-digestive pattern remains, which prevents enteral feeding. There are several factors that have an impact on this change, mainly the underlying disease, sepsis, head trauma, mechanical ventilation, sedation, and muscle relaxation. The use of pro-kinetic agents such as metoclopramide may, at least theoretically, modify motility impainment and facilitate the correct administration of prescribed requirements. Among other functions, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) has a barrier function between inner and outer media, which prevents bacteria, antigenic agents, and toxicants from entering the blood. Its failure is characterized by decreased nutrient absorption, impaired intestinal immunological response and increased intestinal permeability (IP). Among the hypothesis trying to explain systemic infection and multiorgan failure (MOF), there is precisely anatomical and functional integrity of the intestinal mucosa. Mucosal impairment with increased IP has been shown in burn patients, polytrauma, major surgery, hematopoietic cell transplantation, and sepsis, although its relationship with bacterial translocation has not clearly been established. Before the evidences that link the GIT with MOF, the monitoring methods aimed at early correction of splaenic hypoperfusion focus on the mechanisms implicated in increased IP.

Acceso enteral y evaluación de la función intestinal en el paciente crítico / Enteral access and intestinal function assessment in the critically ill patients

La utilización de la nutrición enteral (NE) en el paciente crítico hace necesario evaluar su eficacia e influencia en la consecución de los requerimientos pautados. La NE administrada a nivel gástrico tiene una tasa alta de complicaciones, particularmente aumento de residuo, que conlleva una infranutrición. La utilización del intestino delgado (yeyuno), puede conseguir un aumento del volumen administrado. Pero para ello hay tres aspectos que influyen directamente en su utilización: la vía de acceso intestinal, la capacidad motora y su capacidad absortiva y función de barrera. La elección de la vía de acceso al tubo digestivo debe realizarse tras valoración de la patología de base y el tiempo previsto de duración de la NE. Si es superior a 4-6 semanas se procederá a acceso definitivo a través de una técnica invasiva y ostomía (yeyunostomía radiológica, endoscópica o quirúrgica) y si es inferior a 4-6 semanas, técnica no invasiva o transnasal (nasoduodenal o nasoyeyunal) con endoscopia, fluoroscopia o ecografía. Se ha constatado que, mediante protocolización de los procedimientos y experiencia, la nutrición yeyunal puede conseguir un aumento de los requerimientos administrados al paciente crítico bajo ventilación mecánica respecto de la nutrición gástrica, aunque no son claros los beneficios en cuanto a la reducción de complicaciones infecciosas, estancia y mortalidad, por lo que su uso debe reservarse para aquellos casos en los que está documentado una clara intolerancia gástrica. Mediante técnica manométrica o con el test de absorción de acetaminofeno, se ha constatado que el 50% de los pacientes críticos con ventilación mecánica tienen, a nivel gástrico, hipomotilidad antral, disminución de los complejos motores migratorios y del vaciamiento gástrico, lo que dificulta considerablemente la nutrición. En condiciones normales, durante el ayuno existen unas contracciones motoras regulares o complejo motor migratorio interdigestivo cuyo patrón no es favorable a la absorción de nutrientes por ser altamente propulsivo, por lo que en la fase nutriente cambia al patrón postprandial, de actividad contráctil irregular y continua, sin frentes de actividad, mucho más adaptado a la absorción de nutrientes. En el paciente crítico se pierde este esquema propulsivo normal, desapareciendo con frecuencia el patrón postprandial y persistiendo el interdigestivo, lo que dificulta o impide la nutrición enteral. Son varios los factores que influyen en ese cambio, principalmente la patología de base, sepsis, TCE, ventilación mecánica, sedación y miorelajación. La utilización de agentes procinéticos, como la metoclopramida, puede, al menos en teoría, modificar la alteración de la motilidad y facilitar la correcta administración de los requerimientos pautados. Entre otras, el tracto gastrointestinal (TGI) desempeña una función de «barrera» entre los medios interno y externo que impide la entrada a sangre de bacterias, agentes antigénicos y tóxicos. Su fracaso se caracteriza por absorción disminuida de nutrientes, alteración de la respuesta inmunológica intestinal y aumento de la permeabilidad intestinal (PI). Entre las hipótesis que pretenden explicar la infección sistémica y el fracaso multiorgánico (FMO) figura precisamente el fallo en la integridad anatómica y funcional de la mucosa intestinal. Se ha constatado una alteración de dicha mucosa con aumento de la PI en patologías como quemados, politraumatismos, cirugía mayor, trasplante de células hemopoyéticas y sepsis, aunque no se ha establecido con claridad su relación con la traslocación bacteriana. Ante las evidencias que implican al TGI en el FMO, los métodos de monitorización dirigidos a corregir precozmente la hipopefusión esplácnica nos orientan sobre los mecanismos implicados en el aumento de la PI

The use of enteral nutrition (EN) in the critically-ill patient makes necessary to evaluate its effectiveness and impact on achieving the target requirements. Gastrically administered EN has a high complication rate, especially increased residue that leads to hyponutrition. The use of the small bowel (jejunum) may achieve greater administered volume, although there are three aspects that directly influence on its use: intestinal access route, motility and absorptive capability, and barrier function. The selection of the access route to the digestive tube has to be done after evaluating the underlying disease and predicted duration of EN. If it is greater than 4-6 weeks a definitive access will be performed through an invasive technique of ostomy (radiologic, endoscopic or surgical jejunostomy) and if it is shorter than 4-6 weeks, an endoscopic, fluoroscopic or ultrasonographic non-invasive or transnasal technique (naso-duodenal, or nasojejunal) will be used. By protocoling procedures and experiences, it has been shown that jejunal nutrition may achieve an increase in the amount of requirements administerd to critically-ill patients with mechanical ventilation as compared to gastric feeding, although the benefits with regards to reducing the number of infectious complications, hospital stay and mortality are not so clear-cut, so that it should be left to those cases in which gastric feeding has been clearly documented. By using the manometrich technique or the acetaminophen absorption tests it has been shown that 50% of critically-ill patients with mechanical ventilation have gastric antral hypomotility with decreased migratory motor complexes and gastric voiding, which considerably hampers nutrition. Under normal circumstances, during fasting, there are regular motor contractions, or an inter-digestive migratory motor complex which pattern prevents nutrient absorption because of being highly propulsive, so that during the nutrient phase, this pattern changes into the postprandial pattern with an irregular and continuous contraction activity, with no activity centers, which is much more adapted to nutrient absorption. In critically-ill patients, this normal propulsive pattern is lost, the postprandial pattern is frequently lost, and the inter-digestive pattern remains, which prevents enteral feeding. There are several factors that have an impact on this change, mainly the underlying disease, sepsis, head trauma, mechanical ventilation, sedation, and muscle relaxation. The use of pro-kinetic agents such as metoclopramide may, at least theoretically, modify motility impainment and facilitate the correct administration of prescribed requirements. Among other functions, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) has a barrier function between inner and outer media, which prevents bacteria, antigenic agents, and toxicants from entering the blood. Its failure is characterized by decreased nutrient absorption, impaired intestinal immunological response and increased intestinal permeability (IP). Among the hypothesis trying to explain systemic infection and multiorgan failure (MOF), there is precisely anatomical and functional integrity of the intestinal mucosa

[Clinical consequences of neuromuscular impairments in critically ill patients]. / Consecuencias clínicas de las alteraciones neuromusculares en el paciente crítico.

Neuromuscular pathology in the critically ill patient develops within two settings: primary neurological diseases that require admission in the Intensive Care Medicine Unit for close monitoring or mechanical ventilation, and peripheral nervous system manifestations secondary to critical systemic diseases. The most frequent conditions in the first group are Guillain-Barré syndrome and Myasthenia Gravis, and in the second group, polyneuropathy and myopathy of the critically ill patient. The most commonly shared clinical pattern is the development of severe weakness and quadriplegia which most typical manifestation is the need for assisted ventilation and/or weaning difficulty/impossibility. Triggering factors considered are multiorgan failure and sepsis in polyneuropathy, and steroids and neuromuscular blockers in myopathy, with malnutrition, particularly hypoalbuminemia, and hyperglycemia being co-adjuvant in both conditions. Considering that neuropathic and myopathic conditions may frequently coexist, the term polyneuromyopathy of the critically ill patient has been coined. Both Guillain-Barré syndrome and polyneuropathy of the critically ill patient involve peripheral nerves, so that the differential diagnosis has to be made between both. The presenting picture is different, since the former is an acute pathology that motivates ICU admission, whereas the latter is a polyneuropathy acquired during hospitalization. In the former, involvement of the autonomous nervous system and CSF albumin-cytology dissociation are common, which do not occur in polyneuropathy. Electrophysiological studies show demyelinating signs with decreased conduction velocity and normal amplitude of motor potentials in Guillain-Barré syndrome versus normal conduction velocity and reduced amplitude of motor potentials in axonal polyneuropathy. Myasthenic crisis affects the neuromuscular junction and its diagnosis tends to be easier since in most of the cases a previous diagnosis of myasthenia gravis exists. Muscle weakness increases during repeated activity (muscle fatigue) and improves on resting. Diagnostic confirmation is done by means of edrophonium test and by repeated nerve stimulation, which leads to a rapid decrease by 10-15% of the amplitude of evoked responses. Myopathy of the critically ill patient involves the muscle and provokes a generalized weakness with quadriplegia, very similar to that from polyneuropathy, which prevents or delays weaning from mechanical ventilation, and which may lead to CPK and myoglobin increase in more advanced stages, together with changes in neurophysiological examination. The findings of neurophysiological examination are difficult to differentiate from those encountered in polyneuropathy, although normal sensitive action potentials and reduction of motor action potentials with direct muscle stimulation may help in the differentiation. The functional prognosis of primary muscle impairments tends to be quite good, but both polyneuropathy and myopathy resolve very slowly along weeks or months, with the possibility of an important residual deficit within two years in the most severe cases.

Consecuencias clínicas de las alteraciones neuromusculares en el paciente crítico / Clinical consequences of neuromuscular impairments in critically ill patients

La patología neuromuscular en el paciente crítico se desarrolla en dos contextos: enfermedades neurológicas primarias que requieren su ingreso en Medicina Intensiva por necesitar vigilancia estricta o ventilación mecánica y manifestaciones del sistema nervioso periférico secundarias a enfermedades sistémicas críticas. En el primer grupo son las más frecuentes el Síndrome de Guillain-Barré y la Miastenia Gravis y en el segundo la Polineuropatía y la Miopatía del paciente crítico. El patrón clínico común más frecuente consiste en el desarrollo de un cuadro de acusada debilidad y cuadriparesia cuya manifestación más típica es la necesidad de respiración asistida o la dificultad/imposibilidad para su retirada. Se consideran factores desencadenantes el fracaso multiorgánico y la sepsis en la polineuropatía y los esteroides y bloqueantes neuromusculares en la miopatía, actuando como coadyuvantes en ambos casos la malnutrición, particularmente la hipoalbimunemia, y la hiperglucemia. Considerando que la afectación neuropática y miopática coexisten con frecuencia, se ha acuñado el término polineuromiopatía del paciente crítico. Tanto el Síndrome de Guillain-Barré como la polineuropatía del paciente crítico se localizan a nivel del nervio periférico, por lo que debe efectuarse un diagnóstico diferencial entre ambos. La forma de presentación es diferente ya que el primero es una patología aguda que motiva su ingreso en UCI, mientras que la polineuropatía se adquiere durante la hospitalización. En el primero es frecuente la afectación del sistema nervioso autónomo y la disociación albúmino-citológica en el LCR, lo que no se da en la polineuropatía. Los estudios electrofisiológicos muestran signos de desmelinización con disminución de la velocidad de conducción y normalidad en la amplitud de potenciales motores en el Síndrome de Guillain- Barré frente a velocidad de conducción normal y amplitud reducida de potenciales motores en la polineuropatía axonal. La crisis miasténica afecta a la unión neuromuscular y su diagnóstico suele ser más fácil al tener en la mayoría de los casos un diagnóstico previo de miastenia gravis.La debilidad muscular aumenta durante la actividad repetida (fatiga muscular) y mejora con el reposo. Su confirmación diagnóstica se realiza con el test del edofronio y con la estimulación nerviosa repetitiva, que provoca una rápida disminución del 10-15% en la amplitud de las respuestas provocadas. La miopatía del paciente crítico se localiza en el músculo y provoca una debilidad generalizada con cuadriparesia, muy similar a la de la polineuropatía, que impide o retrasa la desconexión de la ventilación mecánica y que en sus grados avanzados puede provocar un aumento de CPK y mioglobina, junto con alteraciones en la exploración neurofisiológica. Esta última es difícil de discernir de la encontrada en la polineuropatía, aunque la normalidad en los potenciales de acción sensitiva y la redución en el potencial de ación motora con estimulación muscular directa, puede ayudar a diferenciarlos. El pronóstico funcional de las alteraciones musculares primarias suele ser bastante bueno, pero tanto la polineuropatía como la miopatía evolucionan lentamente a lo largo de semanas o meses, pudiendo quedar un importante déficit residual a los dos años en los casos más graves (AU)

Neuromuscular pathology in the critically ill patient develops within two settings: primary neurological diseases that require admission in the Intensive Care Medicine Unit for close monitoring or mechanical ventilation, and peripheral nervous system manifestations secondary to critical systemic diseases. The most frequent conditions in the first group are Guillain-Barré syndrome and Myasthenia Gravis, and in the second group, polyneuropathy and myopathy of the critically ill patient. The most commonly shared clinical pattern is the development of severe weakness and quadriplegia which most typical manifestation is the need for assisted ventilation and/or weaning difficulty/impossibility. Triggering factors considered are multiorgan failure and sepsis in polyneuropathy, and steroids and neuromuscular blockers in myopathy, with malnutrition, particularly hypoalbuminemia, and hyperglycemia being co-adjuvant in both conditions.Considering that neuropathic and myopathic conditions may frequently coexist, the term polyneuromyopathy of the critically ill patient has been coined. Both Guillain-Barré syndrome and polyneuropathy of the critically ill patient involve peripheral nerves, so that the differential diagnosis has to be made between both.The presenting picture is different, since the former is an acute pathology that motivates ICU admission, whereas the latter is a polyneuropathy acquired during hospitalization. In the former, involvement of the autonomous nervous system and CSF albumin-cytology dissociation are common, which do not occur in polyneuropathy. Electrophysiological studies show demyelinating signs with decreased conduction velocity and normal amplitude of motor potentials in Guillain-Barré syndrome versus normal conduction velocity and reduced amplitude of motor potentials in axonal polyneuropathy. Myasthenic crisis affects the neuromuscular junction and its diagnosis tends to be easier since in most of the cases a previous diagnosis of myasthenia gravis exists.Muscle weakness increases during repeated activity (muscle fatigue) and improves on resting. Diagnostic confirmation is done by means of edrophonium test and by repeated nerve stimulation, which leads to a rapid decrease by 10-15% of the amplitude of evoked responses. Myopathy of the critically ill patient involves the muscle and provokes a generalized weakness with quadriplegia, very similar to that from polyneuropathy, which prevents or delays weaning from mechanical ventilation, and which may lead to CPK and myoglobin increase in more advanced stages, together with changes in neurophysiological examination. The findings of neurophysiological examination are difficult to differentiate from those encountered in polyneuropathy, although normal sensitive action potentials and reduction of motor action potentials with direct muscle stimulation may help in the differentiation. The functional prognosis of primary muscle impairments tends to be quite good, but both polyneuropathy and myopathy resolve very slowly along weeks or months, with the possibility of an important residual deficit within two years in the most severe cases (AU)

Sepsis and SOFA score: related outcome for critically ill renal patients.

AIMS: To evaluate the influence of sepsis in critically ill patients with acute renal failure (ARF), and to analyze the value of the sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score for assessing the morbidity and related mortality of these patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective observational study developed in a medical intensive care unit (ICU) of a tertiary care university hospital. Data were collected from January 1, 2001 - July 31, 2002. The inclusion criterion was either a creatinine plasma level > or = 2 mg/dl on ICU admission or increases > or = 30% from its initial value. Sepsis was evaluated at the time of study inclusion, and patients were distributed into 2 groups (septic and nonseptic patients). RESULTS: Two hundred patients with ARF were prospectively enrolled in the study (91 (45.5%) septic and 109 (54.5%) nonseptic patients). Median age was 68 years in septic patients and 72 in nonseptic ones while the percentage of males in both groups was 66% vs 69%, respectively. Septic patients showed more organ failures and more respiratory, cardiovascular and coagulation failures at the time of study admission as well as a worse mean SOFA score during the first 4 days after inclusion (p < 0.01). Mortality rate at the ICU was significantly higher in the septic group when compared to the nonseptic one (55% vs 19.3%, OR = 2.21 (1.65 - 2.97)). Using stepwise logistic regression, acute tubular necrosis and oliguria in septic patients as well as cardiovascular failure (evaluated by SOFA score) in nonseptic patients were identified as independent risk factors for mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Septic and nonseptic ICU patients with ARF have an increased risk of ICU mortality depending on the type of organ failure. Although SOFA score does not predict outcome, it is a useful tool to categorize these patients and to describe a sequence of complications in critically ill patients.