Knowledge revision processes during reading: How pictures influence the activation of outdated information.

Outdated information (i.e., information that is not or no longer accurate) continues to be automatically activated during reading and can hinder learning processes. Thus, it is important to understand which factors influence the activation of outdated information and, therefore, knowledge revision processes. In three online experiments, we investigated how illustrating updated or outdated information via pictures influences the activation of outdated information. In Experiments 1 (N = 421) and 2 (N = 422), we varied whether participants read texts containing outdated information that was later updated (outdated text) or texts containing only updated information (consistent text). In addition, the updated information was or was not illustrated by a picture. In Experiment 3 (N = 441), participants read outdated texts, and we varied whether the outdated, the updated, or no information was illustrated. In all experiments, we measured reading times for a target sentence referring to the updated information and the sentence following the target sentence. Results showed that target sentences' reading times were faster for illustrated than for non-illustrated texts (Experiments 1 and 2). Moreover, reading times were longer when the outdated information was illustrated than when the updated information was illustrated (Experiment 3). These results suggest that pictures overall facilitate cognitive processes during reading, but their content matters: Pictures showing the updated information had a greater impact on reading times than pictures showing the outdated information. The results extend existing theories on knowledge revision but also reading comprehension, by demonstrating how pictures might influence cognitive processes during reading.

Development of Attention and Accuracy in Learning a Categorization Task.

Being able to categorize objects as similar or different is an essential skill. An important aspect of learning to categorize is learning to attend to relevant features (i.e., features that determine category membership) and ignore irrelevant features of the to-be-categorized objects. Feature variability across objects of different categories is informative, because it allows inferring the rules underlying category membership. In this study, participants learned to categorize fictitious creatures (i.e., aliens). We measured attention to the aliens during learning using eye-tracking and calculated the attentional focus as the ratio of attention to relevant versus irrelevant features. As expected, participants' categorization accuracy improved with practice; however, in contrast to our expectations, their attentional focus did not improve with practice. When computing the attentional focus, attention to the aliens' eyes was disregarded, because while eyes attract a lot of attention, they did not vary across aliens (non-informative feature). Yet, an explorative analysis of attention to eyes suggested that participants' attentional focus did become somewhat more efficient in that over time they learned to ignore the eyes. Results are discussed in the context of the need for instructional methods to improve attentional focus in learning to categorize.

Using eye-tracking and EEG to study the mental processing demands during learning of text-picture combinations.

Using and combining eye-tracking and EEG frequency band power as process measures, in the current study we were interested in the mental processing demands during learning of text-picture combinations that either enabled or prohibited text-picture integration (TPI). In the mismatch condition, the textual and pictorial information being dissimilar, TPI was not possible, whereas in the match and the partial-match condition, the textual and pictorial information being identical respective complementary, TPI was possible. We expected mental processing demands to be higher in the mismatch condition, when pictorial and textual information had to be processed and memorized as separate representations, compared to the match and partial-match conditions when TPI was possible. As expected, on virtually all process measures we observed increased mental processing demands when two mental representations had to be processed and memorized compared to the two conditions where TPI was possible. The EEG alpha and theta frequency band power data corroborated and extended the eye-tracking measures of mental processing demands. In addition, we performed a fixation-related EEG frequency band power analysis that also corroborated the results of the classic stimulus-locked EEG frequency band power analysis, exemplifying the use of this former methodology in the context of complex multimedia task materials.

Implementation Intentions Related to Self-Regulatory Processes Do Not Enhance Learning in a Multimedia Environment.

Learners face various obstacles during learning from illustrated texts that can be conceptualized against the backdrop of frameworks of self-regulated learning. According to these frameworks, for learning to be successful, students must use appropriate cognitive strategies, hold adequate self-efficacy beliefs, and invest sufficient effort in learning. We investigated whether implementation intentions (if-then-plans) relating to these self-regulatory processes improve learning in a multimedia environment and whether they differ in their effectiveness depending on the self-regulatory process that they address. Learners were either asked to internalize an implementation intention relating to cognitive strategies, self-efficacy beliefs, or effort, or they did not receive any instructional support (control condition). Then, they learned about a mechanical system from a multimedia message and finally were tested on the learned contents. Contrary to expectations, none of the implementation intentions increased learning outcome, compared with the control condition, nor did the conditions differ from each other. However, implementation intentions interacted with the self-efficacy beliefs that learners already held. Higher self-efficacy beliefs were associated with better learning outcome, unless learners received an implementation intention telling them to use a multimedia-specific cognitive strategy. Interfering cognitive processes are discussed as a possible explanation for this interaction. In summary, implementation intentions should be further investigated and optimized before they can be implemented in real-life learning contexts.

Specifying the boundary conditions of the multimedia effect: The influence of content and its distribution between text and pictures.

It was investigated whether the beneficial effect of picture presentation might be influenced by the content conveyed through text and pictures and the way information is distributed between them. Ninety-nine students learnt in five between-subjects learning conditions (i.e., text with spatial contents plus pictures, text with visual contents plus pictures, only text with spatial contents, only text with visual contents, only picture) about a tourist centre and a holiday farm. Results showed that pictures (i.e., maps) were beneficial for learning if spatial knowledge had to be acquired, but did not support learning when non-spatial, visual knowledge had to be acquired. Furthermore, a high overlap of spatial information in text and picture was helpful, which can be explained by the assumption that learning is a text-guided process. On the other hand, regarding non-spatial visual information, a high text-picture overlap did not influence learning, probably because text alone was sufficient for acquiring visual knowledge. The implications of these findings are discussed.

The effect of layout and pacing on learning from diagrams with unnecessary text.

Although the presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information hinders learning, it is unclear whether and how layout and pacing influence this effect. In two experiments, participants learned how the heart functions using four different layouts: a diagram presented without unnecessary text (diagram only), with unnecessary text separated from the diagram (separated) or integrated into the diagram (integrated), or with separated unnecessary text and the instruction to integrate (integration instruction). In Experiment 1, study time was self-paced for half of the participants and system paced for the other half. There were no effects of layout and of pacing on learning, although system pacing was more effortful than self-pacing. In Experiment 2, which was system paced and employed eye tracking, the integrated condition showed worse learning outcomes than the separated condition. Moreover, in the integrated condition, participants made more integration attempts between the unnecessary text and the diagram than in the separated condition.

Self-regulated learning from illustrated text: Eye movement modelling to support use and regulation of cognitive processes during learning from multimedia.

BACKGROUND: When learning with text and pictures, learners often fail to adequately process the materials, which can be explained as a failure to self-regulate one's learning by choosing adequate cognitive learning processes. Eye movement modelling examples (EMME) showing how to process multimedia instruction have improved elementary school children's learning from text and pictures in previous studies. AIMS: We tested whether the positive effects of EMME for improving self-regulated multimedia learning extend to university students and teaching of more comprehensive processing strategies. Moreover, we investigated whether EMME's effectiveness depends upon a learner's cognitive prerequisites. SAMPLE: Participants were 50 university students (38 female; M = 26.88 years) with different study majors. METHODS: Different prior knowledge aspects were assessed as cognitive prerequisites. Before learning about mitosis from a multimedia instruction, students either received no intervention or saw EMME demonstrating various multimedia learning processes. Learning outcomes and eye movements served as dependent variables. RESULTS: Learners in the EMME group showed more intense processing of pictures and more frequent transitions between text and pictures. Weaker learners showed poorer recall performance after having studied EMME, whereas EMME had no effect on stronger students. In the forced-choice verification task, stronger students benefitted from EMME, whereas no effect occurred for weaker students. The picture-processing time was suited to explain the positive effects of EMME for stronger students. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that EMME illustrating a comprehensive set of cognitive processes support multimedia learning for stronger university students.

Verbal descriptions of spatial information can interfere with picture processing.

Two studies are reported that tested the assumption that learning is improved by presenting text and pictures compared to text only when the text conveys non-spatial rather than spatial information. In Experiment 1, 59 students learned with text containing either visual or spatial contents, both accompanied by the same pictures. The results confirmed the expected interference between the processing of spatial text contents and pictures: Learners who received text containing spatial information showed worse text and picture recall than learners who received text containing visual information. In Experiment 2, 85 students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, which resulted from a 2 × 2 between-participants design, with picture presentation (with vs without) and text contents (visual vs spatial) as between-participants factors. Again the results confirmed the expected interference between processing of spatial text information and pictures, because beneficial effects of adding pictures to text were observed only when the texts conveyed visual information. Importantly, when no pictures were present no differences were observed between learners with either visual or spatial texts contents, indicating that the observed effects are not caused by absolute differences between the two texts such as their difficulty. The implications of these results are discussed.

The time course of information extraction from instructional diagrams.

This study investigated which information is extracted from a brief glance at an instructional diagram to assess its possible contribution for learning with text and diagrams. An experimental paradigm from scene perception research was used to study diagrams. University students (N = 20) saw pictures showing a scene or instructional diagrams for four different presentation times (50 msec. vs 250 msec. vs 1,000 msec. vs 3,000 msec.). Following presentation of a picture or diagram, respectively, participants were asked to verify a statement about its gist, details, and the functioning (for diagrams only). Repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to analyze verification accuracy for statements about gist, details, and the functioning as well as the eye movements (i.e., fixation durations and saccade amplitudes) during picture inspection. In both scenes and instructional diagrams, gist but not details were accurately identified from a first glance at the picture (i.e., at 50 msec. and 250 msec.). In contrast, verification accuracy for gist and details increased at a slower rate in instructional diagrams than in scene pictures over presentation times. Moreover, the characteristic function of increasing fixation durations with increasing inspection time was found in scenes, but not in instructional diagrams. Taken together, results suggest that both types of illustrations are processed differently at longer inspection times; however, patterns of early information extraction are similar, namely that the gist but far less information about details is extracted. Results imply people are able to extract an instructional diagram's global spatial structure from a first glance, which may be helpful to learning from text.

Nanopore-based single-molecule mass spectrometry on a lipid membrane microarray.

We report on parallel high-resolution electrical single-molecule analysis on a chip-based nanopore microarray. Lipid bilayers of <20 µm diameter containing single alpha-hemolysin pores were formed on arrays of subpicoliter cavities containing individual microelectrodes (microelectrode cavity array, MECA), and ion conductance-based single molecule mass spectrometry was performed on mixtures of poly(ethylene glycol) molecules of different length. We thereby demonstrate the function of the MECA device as a chip-based platform for array-format nanopore recordings with a resolution at least equal to that of established single microbilayer supports. We conclude that devices based on MECAs may enable more widespread analytical use of nanopores by providing the high throughput and ease of operation of a high-density array format while maintaining or exceeding the precision of state-of-the-art microbilayer recordings.

Congenital radial and thumb aplasia in a neonatal owl monkey (Aotus nancymaae).

This report describes congenital radial and thumb aplasia in a neonatal owl monkey. Congenital limb deformities in human neonates and Old World primate species have been well characterized. The many probable causes of these congenital defects in skeletal structure include fetal exposure to environmental toxins and genetic influences. In nonhuman primates, the cause frequently remains undetermined. In the case we present, the neonate presented for examination because of inability to cling to the dam. The forelimbs were contracted distally, and thumbs were absent. Radiographs indicated complete radial aplasia and other skeletal abnormalities. This description is the fi rst case study of congenital radial and thumb aplasia in a New World primate species.

Facilitating effect of 15-Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on tactile perceptual learning.

Recent neuroimaging studies have revealed that tactile perceptual learning can lead to substantial reorganizational changes of the brain. We report here for the first time that combining high-frequency (15 Hz) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) with tactile discrimination training is capable of facilitating operant perceptual learning. Most notably, increasing the excitability of SI by 15-Hz rTMS improved perceptual learning in spatial, but not in temporal, discrimination tasks. These findings give causal support to recent correlative data obtained by functional magnetic resonance imaging studies indicating a differential role of SI in spatial and temporal discrimination learning. The introduced combination of rTMS and tactile discrimination training may provide new therapeutical potentials in facilitating neuropsychological rehabilitation of functional deficits after lesions of the somatosensory cortex.

Characteristics of assaultive psychiatric patients: ten year analysis of the Assaulted Staff Action Program (ASAP).

Nearly thirty years of published research has documented the continuing presence of patient assaults on staff. These studies have included the traditional male patient with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and histories of violence and substance use disorder and the newer female, personality-disordered individual. This study reports on a ten-year longitudinal analysis of assaultive patients in one public-sector mental healthcare system during a period which included the national shift toward managed care initiatives. Data were gathered in the context of the Assaulted Staff Action Program, a crisis intervention program for staff victims. Patient assailants in both inpatient and community settings included both the traditional and newer personality-disordered individuals. The majority of assailants were females. Managed care initiatives appeared to have had little impact on type of assailants. Implications for safety and treatment are discussed.